Issued  October  5.  1900. 

i^         U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

I  ^g§  BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY— BuLLtTiN  115. 

^^S^  A.  D.  MELVIN,  Chief  of  Bureau. 


■  AMEMBERT  CHEESE  PROBLEMS  IN  THE 

UNITED  STATES. 


BY 
'°S  CHAKLES  THOM,  Ph.  D., 

Mycologist  in  Cheese  Investigatiojis,  Dairy  Dtviston. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERN MI.NT    PRINTING    OFFICE. 
1909. 


Issued  October  5,  1909. 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY— Bulletin  -H?. 

A.  D.  MELVIN,  Chief  of  Bureau. 


CAMEMBERT  CHEESE  PROBLEMS  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES. 


BY 


CHARLES  THOM,  Ph.  D., 

Mycologist  in  Cheese  Investigations,  Dairy  Division. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMHNT    I'RINTING    OFFICE. 
1909. 


THE  BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY. 


Chief:  A.  D.  Melvin. 
Assistant  Chief:  A.  M.  Farrington. 
Chief  Clerk:  Charles  C.  Carroll. 
liiochemic  Division:  M.  Dorset,  chief. 
Dairy  Division:  B.  H.  Rawl,  chief. 

Inspection  Division:  Rice  P.  Steddom,  chief;  Morris  Wooden,  R.  A.  Ramsay, 
jiiul  Albert  E.  Keiinke.  associate  chiefs. 
Pathological  Division:  John  R.  Mohler,  chief. 
Quarantine  Division:  Richard  W.  Hickman,  chief. 
Zoological  Division:  B.  H.  R.\nsom,  chief. 
Exprriment  station:  H  C.  Schroeder.  superintendent. 
Animal  Hnshamlman:  George  M.  Rommel. 
Editor:  James  M.  Pickens. 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


U.  S.  Department  or  Agriculture, 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
Washington^  D.  C.^  July  8,  1909. 

Sir  :  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith,  and  to  recommend  for 
publication  in  the  bulletin  series  of  this  Bureau,  a  manuscript 
entitled  "  Camembert  Cheese  Problems  in  the  United  States,"  by 
Dr.  Charles  Thom,  mycologist  in  cheese  investigations  of  the  Dairy 
Division  of  this  Bureau.  The  paper  describes  the  latest  phase  of  the 
cooperative  work  in  connection  with  European  varieties  of  soft  cheese 
which  has  been  in  progress  for  the  past  five  years  between  the  Dairy 
Division  and  the  Storrs  (Conn.)  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

The  greater  part  of  the  work  mentioned  has  related  to  the  manu- 
facture of  the  Camembert  type  of  cheese  in  the  United  States,  this 
being  a  well-known  variety  and  one  that  has  already  been  produced 
on  a  commercial  scale  with  varying  success  in  some  of  our  North- 
eastern States,  besides  being  extensively  imported.  Efforts  to  estab- 
lish the  industry  in  the  United  States  have  not  been  wholly  success- 
ful, and  it  appears  from  Doctor  Thom's  investigations  that  this  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  climatic  conditions  are  unfavorable  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year  in  most  of  the  regions  where  factories  have 
been  located.  Of  a  number  of  American  cities  studied,  San  Fran- 
cisco alone  was  found  to  have  climatic  conditions  approaching  closely 
those  of  the  Camembert  district  of  France.  It  is  believed,  however, 
that  the  climatic  disadvantages  in  sections  where  they  exist  can  be 
overcome  by  constructing  factories  in  such  a  manner  as  to  provide 
proper  control  of  temperature,  humidity,  and  ventilation. 

Doctor  Thom  has  made  a  very  thorough  investigation  of  the  pecul- 
iar problems  incident  to  the  manufacture  of  Camembert  in  this 
country,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  results  of  his  work,  herein  described, 
will  be  of  value  and  assistance  in  establishing  the  industry  upon  a 
more  successful  and  permanent  basis. 

A  list  of  the  publications  previously  issued  by  this  Bureau  upon 
the  subject  of  Camembert  cheese  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  the 
bulletin. 

Respectfully,  A.  D.  Melvin, 

Chief  of  Bureau. 

Hon.  James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture, 

3 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/camembertcheesepOOthomiala 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Summary 7 

Introduction 10 

Factory  equipment 10 

The  receiving  room 11 

The  cheeaemaking  room 11 

Equipment  of  cheesemaking  room 11 

Conditions  required "- 14 

Standards  of  composition  of  cheese  and  milk 15 

Cheese 15 

Standard  milk  for  Camembert 16 

Relation  of  fat  and  water  to  texture 17 

Starters  and  acidity 18 

The  prevalence  of  gassy  curd  at  certain  seasons 19 

Amount  of  starter  necessary  for  ripening  milk 21 

Detai  Is  of  cheesemaking 22 

Inoculation  with  Camembert  mold 26 

The  ripening  of  Camembert  cheese 27 

Equipment  of  ripening  rooms , 30 

The  newly  made  cheese , 31 

The  ripening  agents 32 

Oidium  ripening 34 

Other  organisms  occurring  on  Camembert  cheese 35 

Conditions  of  ripening 36 

Percentage  of  water 36 

Temperature 36 

Relative  humidity 37 

Other  conditions 38 

The  climatic  factor 39 

Comparison  of  American  and  French  climatic  conditions 40 

Construction  of  rooms  for  cheese  ripening 45 

Stages  of  ripening 46 

When  to  market  the  cheese 49 

The  American  market 50 

Shall  the  factory  make  Cameml^ert  only? 50 

The  cooking  of  Camembert  cheese 51 

Making  Caraeml>ert  cheese  on  the  farm 51 

Acknowledgments 53 

Publications  relating  to  Camembert  cheese 53 

6 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Page. 

Fig.  1.  Camembert  cheesemaking  room  in  American  factory 12 

2.  Camembert  cheese  factory  at  Lisieux,  France 27 

3.  "  Halloir  "  or  first  ripening  room  in  American  Camembert  factory 28 

4.  "  Sechoir,"  second,  or  drying  room  in  American  factory 29 

5.  Another  part  of  the  French  factory  shown  in  figure  2 30 

6.  Another  Frencli  factory,    showing  large  windows,  with  blinds,    in 

' '  sechoir  " 31 

6 


CAMEMBERT  CHEESE  PROBLEMS  IN  THE  UNITED 

STATES. 


SUMMARY. 


The  following  summary'  presents  the  main  features  of  the  processes 
and  problems  involved  in  the  manufacture  of  Camembert  cheese  and 
gives  references  to  pages  where  these  subjects  are  discussed  more  in 
detail. 

EQXnPMENT    AND    CONDITIONS. 

The  descriptions  of  equipment  and  conditions  desired  in  malving  Camembert 
cheese  are  based  upon  the  practice  of  the  factories  in  P'rance  and  in  the  United 
States.     I'ages  10-15. 

MAKING    PROCESS. 

Making-room  temperature,  GO  to  75°  F.,  about  GS°  preferred;  Iceep  tempera- 
ture as  uniform  as  possible.     Page  14. 

Air  of  room,  moist  to  wet.     Page  14. 

Milk,  whole  or  very  slightly  skimmed  (0.5  per  cent),  not  over  eighteen  hours 
old.     I'ages  10-17. 

Starter,  any  standard  form,  0.5  to  1  per  cent,  twelve  to  eighteen  hours  rii)en- 
ing  (overnight)  below  57°  F.     Pages  18-21. 

Acidity  at  renneting.  0.20  to  0.2,'}  per  cent  (phenolphthalein).     I'ages  ls-21. 

Temi)erature  of  retmeting,  S0°  F.,  limits,  S4  to  1)0°  F. 

Rennet.  3  to  5  ounces  per  l.CKK)  pounds  (10  to  15  cubic  centimeters  \)or  100 
pounds).     Page  22. 

Curdling  time,  one  and  one-fourth  to  one  and  one-half  hours  or  longer, 
I'age  22. 

Cutting  curd,  not  advised. 

Dipping,  uniform  distribution  of  curd  into  hoops.     Page  2.3. 

Draining,  til!   next  morning  without   turning. 

Inoculation  with  molds,  not  necessary  except  when  establii^hing  factories. 
Page  2(5. 

Turning,  early   second   morning. 

Salting,  when  linn  enough  to  handle,  usually  eighteen  to  twenty-four  hours 
after  dii)ping.     Several  forms  of  manipulation  ustnl.     Page  24. 

Draining  after  salting,  in  making  room,  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours. 
Page  25. 

Cheese  ready  for  riiKMilng,  contains  57  to  00  i»er  cent  water:  when  fully  rijie. 
47  to  .50  i»er  cent  water.  (Mieese  outside  such  limits  calls  for  extra  care  in 
hundllng.    Pages  31-32. 

7 


CAMEMBERT   CHEESE   PROBLEMS. 


RI  PEN  IXC    TROCKSS. 


Conditions  in  ripening  rooms. —  (1)  TeuiiJerature.  52  to  58°  F.  recommended. 
Lower  teiuperature  lenjitbens  the  process:  hifrher  temi>erature  shortens  it  and 
hastens  decay.     I'aj^e  o(i. 

(2)  Relative  hnuiidity,  limits  about  S3  to  90  or  92  per  cent.  Optinuun 
depends  ni)on  temperature  selected  and  water  content  of  cheeses.  For  cheeses 
evenly  drained  and  fairly  tirui  at  beginning  of  ripening  (perhaps  57  to  59 
per  cent  water)  ]irol>ai)ly  the  oiitiuium  would  be  80  to  88  per  cent  relative 
humidity  at  .",ii  to  'A'"  V.     Pages  37-38. 

First  tivo  irrvL-s. — Cheeses  are  kept  upon  coarse  matting  (clayonst.  Con- 
ditions should  be  controlled  to  produce  a  moderately  thin  rind  showing  well 
distributed  but  not  heavy  areas  of  mold  interspersed  with  patches  beginning  to 
show  reddish  slime.  Itelative  humidity  must  be  held  high  enough  to  permit 
the  slime  to  begin  to  show  with  the  mold,  but  not  so  high  as  to  prevent  the 
appearance  of  the  mold.  Cheeses  will  lose  probably  about  3  to  G  per  cent 
of  water  in  this  time,  acc<»rding  to  handling.  Traces  of  softening  under  the 
rind  show  at  the  end  of  two  weeks.  Cheeses  must  then  be  removed  to  smooth 
boards  or  wrapped  and  boxed.     Pages  4G— 47. 

Third  week. — Slime  areas  increase  without  other  changes  in  appearance. 
Softening  jirogresses  rai)idly.  The  rate  of  change  depends  on  the  temperature 
and  the  percentage  of  water  still  present.  Enough  evaporation  must  be 
allowed  to  bring  the  softened  protein  to  the  consistency  desired  (conunonly 
50  to  51  per  cent  of  water  at  the  end  of  the  time).  The  progress  of  this 
change  can  be  constantly  determined  by  feeling  the  cheeses.  Ripening  of  the 
proper  texture  and  flavor  must  be  well  begun  and  the  water  content  lowered  to 
a  s;ife  percentage  before  cheeses  can  leave  the  factory  with  assurance  of  success 
in  their  further  handling.     Page  47. 

Further  handling. — According  to  the  market  demand,  cheeses  may  be  boxed 
and  their  further  ripening  completed  in  the  cellars  or  in  storage  in  the  dealers' 
hands.  The  ripening  should  not  be  complete  before  the  end  of  the  fourth 
week  and  may  often  desirably  be  lengthened  considerably  beyond  that  time. 
The  progress  sought  can  be  controlled  to  a  large  degree  by  controlling  the  tem- 
I)erature  of  the  storage  room,  or  ripening  cellar,  if  one  is  used.  If  cheeses 
have  the  i)r<)per  consistency  at  the  end  of  the  third  week,  proper  care  alone 
should  assure  good  results  in  the  further  rii)ening.  This  responsibility  falls 
upon  the  dealer  or  consumer.     Pages  48— i9. 

Gassy  eurd. — The  making  process  of  Camembert  subjec;ts  if  to  greater  risks 
from  the  development  of  gassy  curd  than  most  other  cheeses.  During  three  suc- 
cessive years  this  trouble  has  been  much  greater  during  December,  January, 
February,  and  ^Nlarch  than  the  rest  of  the  season.  A  seasonal  prevalence  of  the 
gas-producing  acid  organism.  Baeilhis  laelis  nerogenes,  is  indicated  for  these 
months  or  parts  of  them.  The  introduction  of  0.5  per  cent,  or  slightly  more, 
pure  starter  with  ripening  over  night  at  50  to  57°  F.  has  produced  sufficient 
ripening  to  reduce  gas  formation  to  a  mininuim,  without  raising  the  acidity 
test  (  phenoli)hthalein)  above  0.22  to  0.23  per  cent.     Pages  19-21. 

Changes  in  composition  during  ripemng. — The  changes  in  composition  during 
the  ripening  iierlod  are  the  neutralization  or  destruction  of  acidity,  the  softening 
of  the  cheese  due  to  proteolysis  of  the  casein,  and  the  lowering  of  the  water 
content  about  10  per  cent.  The  fat  is  little  affected.  The  activity  of  the 
riix?niug  agents,  and  consequently  the  rate  of  ripening,  is  found  to  be  closely 
dependent  upon  the  amount  of  excess  of  water  in  the  fresh  cheese  above  the 
water  content  in  the  ripe  cheese  and  to  the  rate  and  conditions  under  which 
that  water  is  evaporated.     Pages  32-34. 


SUMMARY.  9 

Temperature  and  humidity. — The  temperature  and  relative  humidity  of  vbo 
air  in  the  ripening  rooms  determine  the  rate  of  loss  of  water  in  the  ripeuiny 
of  the  cheese.  The  temperature  limits  recommended  are  52  to  58°  F.  The 
relative  humidity  indicated  varied  from  84  to  90  per  cent,  or  even  higher. 

COMPOSITION    OF  CAM  EM  BERT  CHEESE. 

Analyses  of  imported  and  domestic  Camembert  have  been  tabulated  and  dis- 
cussed, to  determine  as  closely  as  possible  a  satisfactory  standard  for  this 
variety  of  cheese.  Marked  variations  have  been  found  in  various  brands. 
The  analyses  of  cheeses  selected  as  representing  choice  conditions  of  textiTi-e 
and  flavor  place  the  average  of  the  best  cheeses  within  approximate  limits  as 
follows :  Water,  47  to  50  i)er  cent ;  fat,  25  to  28  per  cent ;  protein,  IS  to  21  per 
cent.  Variations  outside  these  limits  are  common,  but  seem  to  involve  more 
risks  of  defects  than  those  within  these  limits.    I'ages  15-16. 

CLIMATIC   DIFFICULTIES    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

I'^bulation  and  comparison  of  mean  temperatures  and  mean  relative  humid- 
ities for  cities  in  northern  France  and  certain  American  cities  in  dairy  regions 
show  that  in  America  mean  temperatures  are  either  too  high  or  too  low  for 
Camembert  cheese  riijening,  except  during  iKjrtions  of  September.  October,  and 
November.  In  the  sjime  cities  the  mean  relative  humidity  remains  too  low 
in  nearly  every  month  of  the  year  for  ripening  this  kind  of  cheese.  San  Fran- 
cisco alone  of  the  American  cities  studietl  shows  conditions  closely  similar  to 
those  in  northern  France.     Pages  39—44. 

Uipeuing  rooms  built  for  climatic  conditions  found  in  France  have  failed  to 
give  success  in  America.  Either  domestic  manufacture  of  Camembert  nmst  be 
abandoned  in  most  sections  or  the  construction  of  the  rooms  for  cheese  ripening 
must  be  so  motlitied  as  to  obtain  the  conditions  desired.     I'ages  27-31. 

Factories  to  succeed  in  the  Eastern  States  must  provide  control  of  temperature 
and  relative  humidity  within  closer  limits  than  those  obtainable  with  the  French 
plans  hitherto  used.  This  may  be  obtained  by  better  insulation  of  the  rooms 
already  built  or  by  the  construction  of  new  rooms  which  may  be  partly  or 
entirely  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  In  either  case  the  building  must 
provide  means  for  thorough  but  controlletl  ventilation  sutficient  to  carry  off 
moisture  as  fast  as  required.     I'ages  4.j-4(j. 

FACTORY  AND  FARM  PRODUCTION. 

Camembert  cheeseniaking  for  the  general  market  is  a  factory  proposition  in 
which  prfxluction  uikhi  a  large  scale  conduces  to  economy  of  labor  and  uni- 
formity of  result.s.  A  good  grade  of  Camembert  can  be  made  and  ripened  upon 
the  farm  with  comiMiratively  simple  and  itu'X|>ensive  eipiipmeut.  The  dith- 
cultj'  of  making  uniform  ch(>eses  is  greater  when  working  upon  a  small  scale. 
Such  clieeseinaking  can  not  at  present  be  advisetl  except  for  home  use  or  for 
sale  to  a  s|»eclal  market  .served  directly  by  the  producer.  Pages  50-53. 
3563— Bull.  115—09 2 


10  CAMEMBERT   CHEESE   PROBLEMS. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Xuineroiis  practical  and  scientific  problems  have  been  encountered 
in  attempting  to  establish  the  manufacture  of  Camembert  cheese  in 
the  United  States.  Some  of  these,  together  with  the  practices  fol- 
lowed in  the  first  two  years  of  the  investigation,  have  been  discussed 
in  previous  papers.  Before  and  during  the  progress  of  this  early 
work  several  factories  undertook  to  produce  this  cheese  in  America. 
Most  of  these  companies  established  plants  with  the  object  of  repro- 
ducing as  nearlv  as  possible  the  buildings  and  equipment  successful 
in  France,  and  employed  experienced  cheesemakers  from  that  country 
to  carry  on  the  work.  At  one  time  the  product  of  these  factories 
made  up  fully  one-fourth  the  total  amount  of  Camembert  consumed 
in  America.  The  production  and  sale  of  this  cheese  was,  however, 
attended  by  uncertainties  as  to  market  and  by  numerous  losses  in 
the  factor}'.  Some  of  these  difficulties  w^ere  readih'  recognized,  but 
in  many  cases  even  the  experienced  maker  failed  without  being  able 
to  find  the  reasons  for  his  losses.  So  much  difficulty  and  discourage- 
ment have  attended  these  enterprises  that  some  of  them  have  been 
entirely  abandoned,  and  the  product  from  all  has  been  greatly 
reduced. 

In  continuing  the  investigation,  experimental  work  at  Storrs  has 
been  supplemented  by  a  study  of  the  i)roblems  of  the  market  (see 
Circular  145,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry),  and  by  visits  to  all  the 
factories  carrying  on  this  work. 

This  paper  is  a  report  of  progress  upon  the  studies  of  the  problems 
Avhich  have  come  up  in  this  work,  together  with  modifications  of 
handling  that  will  bring  the  processes  recommended  into  substantial 
harmony  with  factory  practice. 

In  sj^ite  of  the  failures  wdiich  have  occurred  in  the  past,  there  is 
good  reason  to  believe  that  a  readjustment  of  methods  to  conditions 
will  eventually  bring  permanent  success.  Without  such  readjustment, 
the  transplanting  of  the  Camembert  industry  to  our  Eastern  States 
has  so  far  disappointed  the  investors.  It  can  not,  however,  be  claimed 
that  all  the  difficulties  have  been  overcome  in  the  practices  discussed 
in  this  paper,  but  much  progress  has  been  made  toward  practical 
working  success  and  toward  correct  interpretation  of  the  causes  for 
past  failures  and  losses. 

FACTORY   EQUIPMENT. 

The  equipment  of  a  Camembert  cheese  factor}-  comprises  most  of 
the  apparatus  and  utensils  common  to  all  creamery  work.  A  room 
for  receiving  and  weighing  the  milk,  apparatus  for  testing  the  amount 
of  fat  in  milk,  steam  for  heating  and  sterilizing  purposes,  etc.,  such 
as  are  found  in  any  up-to-date  dairy,  are  essential.  In  other  words, 
all  the  usual  contrivances  that  facilitate  the  rapid  and  sanitar}'  han- 
dling of  milk  in  large  quantities  must  be  provided. 


FACTORY   EQUIPMENT.  11 

All  of  the  rooms  in  the  factory  should  be  constructed  with  a  view 
to  the  maintenance  of  strict  cleanliness.  In  the  room  in  which  the 
milk  is  delivered  and  also  in  the  cheesemaking  room  the  floors  must 
be  flushed  daih'  with  water  to  remove  any  milk  or  curd  that  other- 
wise would  form  a  breeding  place  for  germs  or  insects.  To  this  end 
the  floors  should  be  of  cement  and  should  slope  toward  one  or  more 
drainpipes.  The  walls  also  should  be  of  some  material  that  can  be 
kept  clean,  and  should  be  painted  or  whitewashed  from  time  to  time. 
The  cheesemaking  room,  as  well  as  all  tlie  other  rooms  where  the 
cheese  is  handled,  must  be  protected  from  flies  and  other  insects. 
Unless  great  precautions  are  taken,  swarms  of  flies  will  invade  the 
room  and  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  cheese,  and  a  fcAv  days  later,  in 
the  ripening  room,  these  eggs  will  hatch  out  into  maggots.  All  the 
windows  must  therefore  be  screened  with  wire  netting  of  fine  mesh, 
and  every  effort  made  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  flies  when  the  doors 
are  oj^ened. 

THE   RECEIVING    ROOM. 

The  room  for  receiving  the  milk  requires  the  same  equipment  as 
in  ordinary  dairy  work.  A  vat  with  capacity  sufficient  for  the  mix- 
ing, heating,  and  ripening  of  all  the  milk  used  each  day  is  usually 
provided.  There  may  be  either  a  single  vat  or  several,  but  the  use 
of  the  larger  vat  insures  the  thorough  mixing  of  the  whole  milk 
supply,  and  hence  a  more  uniform  composition  of  the  whole  lot  from 
day  to  day  than  would  be  obtained  from  the  use  of  several  vats. 
Aside  from  the  desirability  of  mixing  the  milk  for  uniformity,  a 
small  receiving  vat  from  which  the  milk  runs  directly  through  a  milk 
heater  to  the  curdling  cans  is  equalh'  efficient. 

THE  CHEESE.MAKIN(;    ROOM. 

The  floor  of  a  cheesemaking  room  is  usually  cement,  either  upon 
or  slightly  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  room  should  be 
well  lighted.  Double  sashes  are  used  to  protect  the  room  from 
abrupt  changes  of  temperature,  and  usually  two  or  more  of  the 
windows  are  well  screened  and  arranged  to  open  conveniently  for 
ventilation  when  desired.  To  avoid  the  accumulation  of  dirt  the 
inside  sash  should  be  hinged  and  close  up  flush  with  the  wall  sur- 
face, leaving  no  ledges  to  gather  filth. 

Figure  1  illustrates  the  cheesemaking  room  and  its  equipment  in 
a  Camemljert  factory  in  the  United  States. 

EQUII'MKNT    OK    CHKKSKMAKINd    ROOM. 

Aside  from  the  general  eciuipnient  for  all  creamery  work,  such 
as  steam,  water,  and  hose,  the  special  e(iuipment  and  apparatus  for 
Cameinljert  cheesemaking  will  be  l)riefly  descriU'd. 


12 


AMEMBEKT    CHEESE    PROBLEMS. 


Tahles. — Enough  table  siirft  e  is  demanded  to  accommodate  the 
cheeses  to  be  made  in  two  days.  These  tables  ("  tables  a  mouler  ") 
are  3()  to  42  inches  wic>e,  fastened  in  pairs  to  the  opposite  sides  of 
two  vertical  pillars  about  32  inches  above  the  floor.  A  raised  edge 
on  each  side  prevents  Avhey  from  running  from  the  table  to  the  floor. 
The  tables  slope  toward  the  pillars  to  which  they  are  fastened  and 
toward  one  end,  so  that  a  single  gutter  connecting  their  ends  carries 
off  the  whey  from  all  the  tables.  They  are  constructed  of  wood  with 
smooth  surface,  sometimes  of  wood  covered  with  galvanized  iron. 
It  is  best  not  to  have  the  wood  protected  by  metal  or  any  heat-con- 
ducting material.     The  temperature  of  the  curd  being  several  degrees 


Fig.  1. 


-Camcmbcrt   cheesemaking   room    in    American    factory,    showing   arrangement   of 
tables,   aisles,   curdling  cans,   and   milk-distributing   pipes. 


above  that  of  the  room,  the  curd  cools  more  or  less  rapidly  while 
draining,  and  the  rate  of  loss  of  heat  is  increased  w^hen  the  curd  is 
in  contact  with  a  cold  sheet  of  metal.  This  retards  draining  and 
produces  an  uneven  texture  on  account  of  the  different  rate  of  cooling 
of  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  cheese. 

In  most  factories,  directly  above  the  draining  tables  and  fastened 
to  the  pillars  in  the  same  way,  3  feet  above  the  tables,  are  shelves 
of  about  the  width  of  the  draining  table.  They  are  used  for  drain- 
ing the  cheese  during  the  second  and  third  days,  when  space  is  needed. 
These  shelves  are  not  used  except  when  space  is  urgently  needed, 
and  often  not  at  all. 


FACTORY   EQUIPMENT.  13 

Aisles. — The  aisles  between  the  tables  should  be  wide  enough  for 
the  maker  to  work  comfortably.  Sometimes  onfy  26  inches  are  al- 
lowed, but  32  to  36  inches  would  be  more  comfortable  working  room. 

Draining  mats. — These  are  imported  from  France.  The  matting 
is  made  in  strips  like  cloth  of  different  widths  and  is  bought  b}^  the 
roll.  It  is  composed  of  delicate  wood  strips  held  together  by  thread. 
The  matting  purchased  should  be  exactly  as  wide  as  the  draining 
tables.  It  is  cut  into  lengths  convenient  for  handling  and  washing. 
These  may  be  the  full  length  of  the  tables  unless  the  tables  are  very 
long. 

Hoops  or  foimis. — The  number  of  hoops  provided  should  be  twice 
the  number  of  cheeses  to  be  made  each  day.  The  hoops  used  vary 
slightly  (perhaps  a  quarter  of  an  inch)  in  diameter  in  different 
factories.  They  are  preferably  made  of  heavy  tin  with  edges  turned 
and  soldered.  The  hoops  used  in  factories  visited  have  been  5  inches 
high  and  4§  inches  in  diameter.  The  diameter  used  by  different 
makers  often  differs  one-eighth  of  an  inch  from  this  average.  Each 
hoop  is  perforated  with  three  rows  of  holes  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  and  about  2  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Although  hoops  5 
inches  high  are  regularly  used,  it  is  often  necessary  to  fill  them  up 
after  the  curd  has  been  dipped  some  time.  AMien  this  is  found  to  be 
the  case,  it  might  be  desirable  to  make  the  hoops  half  an  inch  higher. 
Some  have  used  also  a  low  hoop  for  draining  on  the  second  day.  Its 
use  is  not  general  and  is  not  recommended. 

Disks. — In  some  factories  heavy  tin  disks  are  provided.  These 
exactly  fit  the  hoops  and  are  used  as  weights  to  produce  a  smooth 
upper  surface  uj^on  the  cheeses.  These  have  not  been  used  much  in 
this  country  and  did  not  give  satisfaction  when  tried  in  our  work. 
In  some  factories  a  handle  carrying  a  rubber  sucking  disk  is  pro- 
vided to  remove  these  disks. 

Dippers. — The  curd  is  transferred  from  curdling  cans  to  hoops  by 
means  of  long-handled  dippers  which  are  small  enougl  for  the  bowl 
of  the  dipper  to  be  lowered  into  the  hoops. 

Curdling  cans. — Curdling  cans  (shown  in  fig.  1)  are  made  to  hold 
ai)<)ut  200  j>oundsof  milk  each.  These  cans  are  made  of  heavy  metal  and 
taper  from  about  12  inches  in  diameter  at  the  bottom  to  20  to  21  inclies 
at  the  toj).     Ilantlles  at  the  top  make  them  more  convenient  to  move. 

Trucks. — For  each  one  or  two  makers  dipping  cheese  a  truck  must 
be  provided.  This  consists  essentially  of  a  round  base  with  a  rim 
j)erhaps  half  an  inch  higii,  into  which  the  curdling  cans  fit  readily. 
Under  this  base  rollers  provide  easy  motion  in  any  desired  direction. 
Th<>  height  of  the  truck  plus  the  heigjjt  of  the  ciinlling  can  should 
bring  the  edge  of  the  can  very  nearly  to  the  toj)  of  the  hoops  when  they 
are  arranged  upon  the  draining  table.  This  will  minimize  the  labor 
of  dipping  as  described  later.    The  trucks  are  shown  in  figure  1. 


14  CAMEMBEET    CHEESE    PROBLEMS. 

Curdling  shelf. — A  shelf  conveniently  placed  should  be  just  high 
enough  from  the  floor  to  allow  the  curdling  cans  to  slide  readily 
upon  the  trucks.  The  tables  are  usually  placed  with  one  end  toward 
the  windows,  the  aisles  between  and  across  the  inner  end,  with 
curdling  caus  arranged  on  their  shelf  along  the  inner  wall  of  the 
room.  Arrangement  is,  however,  a  matter  of  convenience.  Instead 
of  a  wooden  shelf,  sections  of  the  concrete  floor  along  the  wall  are 
often  simply  raised  above  the  main  level  of  the  floor  high  enough  to 
move  the  cans  easily  to  the  trucks. 

Salting  hoards. — Boards  or  trays  are  provided  for  handling  freshly 
salted  cheeses  while  they  remain  in  the  making  room.  These  are 
made  from  ^-ii^ch  smooth  matched  lumber,  held  together  by  cleats 
to  make  the  boards  or  trays  about  2-t  by  30  inches — large  enough  to 
carry  30  cheeses. 

Other  apparatus  has  sometimes  been  used  or  recommended  for  the 
cheesemaking  room.  Vats,  for  example,  can  be  used  instead  of  cur- 
dling cans,  but  they  entail  a  larger  initial  cost,  to  which  must  be 
added  the  constant  extra  labor  of  lifting  curd  by  dipperfuls  from  the 
vat  across  the  aisle  to  the  hoops.  This  extra  labor  is  in  itself  pro- 
hibitive of  the  use  of  vats.  The  use  of  corrugated  draining  boards 
upon  the  tables  is  added  labor  and  expense,  without  compensating 
advantage.  The  apparatus  described  here  has  shown  its  economy  hy 
its  general  accej)tance  in  cheese  factories. 

CONDITIONS    RKQUIREU. 

Temfcratun . — The  limits  are  G0°  to  75°  F.,  the  preferred  temper- 
ature being  G8°  F.  These  limits  are  recommended  by  students  of 
French  practice,  and  experimental  work  has  given  the  same  results. 
If  the  temperature  is  allowed  to  go  below  60°  F.  the  drainage  of  the 
cheese  is  delayed  or  even  entirely  interrupted.  If  the  room  is  too 
warm  the  danger  of  developing  gassy  cheeses  is  much  greater.  Bac- 
teriological studies  by  Conn,  Esten,  Stocking,  and  others  have  fixed 
70°  F.  as  a  condition  under  which  the  typical  lactic  bacteria  Avork 
more  rapidly  than  gas-])r()duciug  types:  whereas  from  70°  to  98° — 
as  the  temperature  approaches  blood  heat — the  gas-producing  species 
gradually  increase  in  activity  until  they  reach  dominance.  At  the 
high  temperatures  the  rate  of  separation  of  whey  increases  also.  It 
has  been  found  desirable  to  hold  the  making  room  slightly  under 
rather  than  over  70°  F.,  if  there  is  a  preference  within  the  limits 
given. 

Humidity . — Tlie  room  should  be  kept  moist — not  fully  saturated, 
but  so  moist  that  surface  evaporation  is  slow.  Rapid  evaporation 
causes  the  curd  to  adhere  to  the  hoops  and  makes  badly  shaped 
cheeses.  Cheeses  tend  to  dry  out  and  shrink  quickly  in  dry  air.  The 
upper  face  of  a  cheese  will  shrink  in  diameter  often  half  an  inch 
while  draining  in  a  dry  room.     Rapid  evaporation  produces  a  thin, 


STANDARDS   OF   COMPOSITION, 


15 


hard  rind  over  wet  curd  instead  of  a  gradual  and  uniform  reduction 
of  water  content  throughout  the  whole  cheese.  To  obtain  the  proper 
water  content  a  cheese  must  drain  out.  not  dry  out. 

Ventilation. — The  actual  rate  of  ventilation  in  the  making  room 
appears  to  matter  very  little  so  long  as  the  air  is  kept  pure.  In  our 
climate  the  changes  of  temperature  are  more  rapid  and  the  air  aver- 
ages much  dryer  than  in  Xormand}'.  Ventilation  must,  therefore, 
be  much  more  closely  restricted  to  avoid  dryness  than  in  French  fac- 
tories. The  cheesemaking  area  in  the  United  States  is  also  much 
higher  above  sea  level,  with  prevailing  winds  blowing  over  large 
land  areas.  All  these  things  contribute  to  the  need  of  greater  re- 
striction of  ventilation  in  the  making  room  than  appears  in  French 
factories. 

Milk. — Good,  clean  milk,  not  over  eighteen  to  twenty  hours  old, 
forms  the  best  basis  for  work.  Milk  older  than  this,  if  well  cooled 
and  cared  for.  may  be  used;  but  the  danger  of  gassy  fermentations 
increases  so  greatly  that  our  experience  amply  justifies  the  French 
practice  of  using  the  fresh  milk  of  the  morning  mixed  with  the  well 
cooled  milk  of  the  night  before. 

STANDARDS   OF   COMPOSITION   OF   CHEESE   AND   MILK. 

CHEESE. 

The  practice  of  removing  a  small  part  of  the  fat  from  the  milk 
used  in  making  Camembert  cheese  is  admitted  to  be  very  common 
in  France.  The  amount  of  such  skimming  varies  with  the  maker, 
the  richness  of  the  milk,  and  the  season.  The  several  brands  of  this 
cheese  appearing  in  the  American  market  have  been  purchased  and 
analyzed  from  time  to  time  during  the  past  five  years,  to  establish, 
if  possible,  standards  for  comparison.  The  following  tal)le  presents 
fairly  rejiresentative  analyses  for  cheese  appearing  upon  the  market 
in  fall  and  winter: 

Tabi.k  1. — Aniiliiscx  of  Camrmlx  rt  chccm-  in  Anitriciin   iii(irK<ls. 


Sample 
No. 


Analyst. 


Dox 

do... 

do... 

Kdinond. 

do... 

do... 

do... 

do... 

Dox 

Edmond . 

do... 

do... 


A  verapo  of  12  analyses  . 


I'roiwrlion 

Water. 

Fat. 

I'rotcin. 

offat  to 
protfin. 

Per  cent. 

Pcrcint. 

Per  ant. 

47.  M) 

2f..  30 

21.  SO 

1:0.82 

4.^.  .'.9 

27.71 

21.40 

1:  .77 

41).  -M) 

27.78 

21.21 

1:  .70 

4H.41 

27.01 

19. 3f, 

1:   .71 

4X.79 

2r..  72 

IS.  75 

1:   .71 

43.  OK 

32.  13 

21.27 

1:  .t'.r. 

44.25 

31.  (W 

19.  (.9 

1:  .CO 

'         50.  .•>9 

211. 30 

IH.s;} 

1:  .71 

47.  03 

2ii.  ii7 

20.  32 

1:   .73 

.54.41 

23.  04 

111.  M 

1:   .73 

51.23 

25.  t.K 

17.1.1 

1:   .TmS 

47.  tW 

27. 32 

19.0.-. 

1:   .1.9 

47.91 

27. 33 

19.  OC. 

1:  .71 

16  CAMEMBERT    CHEESE    PROBLEMS. 

Cheese  Xo.  4  in  the  table  reached  the  analyst  in  almost  perfect 
condition,  both  as  to  texture  and  flavor;  it  may  be  regarded  as  giving 
nearly  a  typical  analysis,  therefore,  for  the  best  Camembert.  Xos. 
8  and  0  were  made  in  America ;  all  of  the  others  were  imjiorted. 

Taking  the  relation  of  fat  and  casein  given  by  Van  Slyke,"*  cheeses 
Xos.  C  and  7  represent  approximately  milk  testing  4  per  cent  fat. 
This  allows  a  casein  loss  of  0.1  per  cent  and  a  fat  loss  of  0.2  to  0.25 
l^er  cent.  Inspection  of  the  ratio  of  fat  to  protein  in  every  other  case 
shows  evidence  of  the  removal  of  a  small  part  of  the  fat.  Some  of 
these  cheeses  were  manifestly  low  in  water  content  from  exposure 
in  the  market  and  consequent  evaporation.  The  same  is  very  evi- 
dently true  of  certain  of  the  analyses  given  by  Von  Klenze  and  by 
Doane  and  Lawson.^ 

The  percentage  of  water  as  shown  in  this  table  was  from  43-[-  to 
50+,  but  in  those  cheeses  analyzed  in  the  best  condition  the  percent- 
age has  been  found  to  vary  from  46  to  50,  or  slightly  more ;  probably 
48  per  cent,  with  a  variation  of  2  per  cent  either  way,  would  include 
most  of  the  better  cheeses  as  they  reach  the  American  market.  It 
must  be  admitted,  however,  that  very  many  good  cheeses  found  in 
the  open  market  show  signs  of  shrinkage,  which  indicates  that  they 
had  contained  52  to  55  per  cent  of  water,  or  even  more,  at  the  time 
of  shipment.  Fift}^  per  cent  may  therefore  be  considered  a  fair 
average  for  partially  ripe  cheeses  when  they  go  to  market.  The 
further  rij^ening  conmioidy  reduces  this  2  and  often  3  to  4  per  cent 
without  serious  loss  of  qualit3^ 

In  fat  content  all  the  cheeses  in  the  table  excepting  three  (Xos.  6, 
7,  and  10)  varied  little  more  than  2  per  cent — that  is,  from  26  to 
28  per  cent.  Xos.  0  and  7  were  especially  high  in  fat  and  correspond- 
ingly low  in  water,  and  appeared  to  be  the  output  of  the  same  fac- 
tory. The  column  marked  "  I^rotein  "  shows  almost  as  narroAv  a 
variation  on  the  average  cheese,  running  from  19  to  21  per  cent. 
Analysis  of  the  richer  grades  of  American  milk  indicate  that  at  least 
0.5  per  cent  of  fat  may  be  removed  from  milk  testing  4.25  per  cent 
or  over,  and  still  leave  the  ratio  of  fat  to  protein  as  high  as  found 
in  g(K)d  imported  cheeses.  In  very  rich  milk  the  fat  figure  would 
vet  be  relatively  too  high  in  many  cases. 

STANDARD    MILK    FOR    CAMEMBERT. 

The  analyses  given,  supplemented  by  those  of  cheeses  made  from 
milk  standardized  at  from  3  to  6  per  cent  fat  content,  show  that 


"  Villi  Slyke.  L.  L..  and  Tublow,  C.  A.  The  Science  and  Practice  of  Cheese- 
ma  li  in  jr.  I).  2;«. 

'j  Doane.  ('.  F.,  and  Lawson,  H.  W.  Varieties  of  Cheese.  TJ.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  105. 


STANDARD   MILK   FOR   CAMEMBERT   CHEESE,  17 

Camembert  cheese  requires  good  milk,  but  not  milk  excessively  rich 
in  fat.  The  closest  correspondence  with  the  composition  of  the  best 
imported  cheese  was  obtained  by  using  Jersey  milk  standardized  to 
3.8  per  cent  fat  after  the  removal  of  0.5  per  cent  of  the  fat — a  per- 
centage still  rather  above  that  of  average  factory  milk.  The  ratio  of 
fat  to  protein  in  the  average  analysis  (1:0.71)  indicates  the  removal 
of  some  fat  °  as  the  usual  condition.  Although  certain  factories  mani- 
festly use  whole  milk,  in  most  of  them  a  moderate  skimming  is  always 
practiced.  There  appears  to  be  good  reason  to  believe,  as  claimed  by 
Koger,  that  the  ratio  of  fat  to  protein  shown  by  the  average  analysis 
of  Camembert  produces  a  cheese  of  better  texture  and  more  satis- 
factory flavor  than  when  the  fat  is  greatly  increased,  as  is  the  case 
with  unmixed  Jersey  milk,  for  example. 

Since,  however,  there  is  no  profit  in  skimming,  it  should  be  prac- 
ticed as  little  as  possible.  For  profitable  results  cheeses  should  be 
made  to  carry  all  the  fat  they  will  without  causing  injury  to  texture 
and  flavor.  If  we  calculate  Camembert  at  approximately  50  per  cent 
water,  every  pound  of  milk  solids  (fat  and  casein)  carries  with  it 
an  equal  amount  of  water  in  making  up  the  yield  of  cheese.  Milk 
fat,  therefore,  sells  in  the  same  markets  more  profitably  as  Camembert 
cheese  than  as  butter.  The  removal  of  more  than  0.5  per  cent  of  fat 
is  probably  not  warranted  with  ordinary  factory  milk.  In  some  cases 
a  less  amount  would  be  better,  but  some  fat  should  ordinarily  be 
removed  from  all  milk  to  obtain  the  proper  proportions  of  fat  and 
casein  in  this  cheese.. 

RELATION    OF   FAT   AND    WATER    TO    TEXTURE. 

In  studies  of  cheeses  made  from  the  same  milk  standardized  to  high 
and  low  fat  content  it  is  uniformly  found  that  under  conditions 
otherwise  the  same  the  milk  low  in  fat  produces  cheeses  higher  in 
water  content.  In  Camembert,  therefore,  as  in  the  hard  cheeses, 
to  obtain  the  same  texture  from  milk  partly  skimmed  as  from  rich 
whole  milk  the  loss  of  fat  is  partly,  at  least,  replaced  by  higher  per- 
centages of  water. 

"Van  Slyke  and  Publow  (loc.  cit.,  p.  16.5)  give  the  ratio  of  fnt  to  casein  in 
the  milk  of  different  breeds  as  varying  from  1:0.07  for  Iloistein-l-'riesian  to 
1:0.52  for  the  highest  grade  of  Jersey  milk.  In  no  ease  do  lliey  find  factory 
milk  to  give  a  higher  ratio  than  1:0.67  or  0.6S.  The  exi>erinuMi(s  liere  eited 
were  made  with  milk  originally  high  in  fat.  The  figures  given  l)y  these  authors 
have  been  confirmed  i)y  work  done  at  the  Storrs  station  and  by  unimblislied 
figures  collected  by  the  Dairy  Division  from  a  large  number  of  factories. 
3503— Bull.  115—09 3 


18  CAMEMBERT    CHEESE    PROBLEMS. 

STARTERS  AND   ACIDITY. 

Some  makers  i) refer  not  to  use  starters.  Our  experience  has  always 
justified  the  use  of  starters,  the  result  being  a  reduction  of  losses 
from  gas  and  the  production  of  a  better  draining  cheese. 

The  so-called  "natural"  starters,  when  entirely  free  from  gas  or 
taint,  are  ahvajs  good.  Many  factories  use  no  other  kind.  Butter- 
milk when  in  good  condition  produces  acidity  rapidly  and  gives  a 
product  uniform  in  flavor  and  texture.  It  is  subject  to  rapid  dete- 
rioration, however,  and  if  used  must  be  Avatched  carefully  for  gassy 
fermentation. 

The  conunercial  starters  as  a  rule  produce  excellent  final  acidity 
and  seem  to  result  in  cheeses  of  stronger  flavor.  It  has  been  generally 
more  difficult,  nevertheless,  to  obtain  uniform  results  with  them. 
Apparently  starters  made  from  these  cultures  have  varied  consider- 
ably in  the  rate  and  intensity  of  their  activity;  hence  cheeses  made 
from  day  to  day  differed  more  than  those  made  with  a  natural 
starter.  With  proper  care  commercial  starters  probably  give  the 
best  results  on  an  average. 

Acidity  at  renncting  time." — From  0.20  to  0.23  per  cent  has  given 
our  best  results.  If  the  acidit}'  is  higher  than  0.25  the  curd  is  not  so 
smooth — that  is,  when  broken  between  the  fingers  it  feels  grain}-  or 
mealy,  "  rough."  If  acid  is  too  low — 0.16  to  0.18  per  cent — it  requires 
more  rennet,  longer  curdling  time,  and  longer  draining  time,  but  pro- 
duces a  good  curd  in  our  experiments.  Since,  however,  milk  usually 
enters  the  factory  with  some  acidity,  it  is  hardly  practicable  to  plan  to 
work  at  an  acidity  lower  than  0.20  per  cent.  The  practice  has  there- 
fore been  adjusted  to  such  milk  as  is  usually  obtainable.  On  the 
same  grounds,  with  equal  reason,  milk  with  higher  acidity  than  0.20 
jjer  cent  when  received  is  not  desirable,  and  cleaner  and  fresher  milk 
should  be  insisted  upon.  Milk  with  excessive  acidity  when  received 
quite  often  develops  gas  or  other  fermentation  (yeast,  bad  odors, 
etc.),  and  this  indicates  that  it  is  already  old  or  dirty,  or  both.  Milk 
known  to  be  gassy,  or  in  which  conditions  point  to  gas  formation, 
should  be  rejected. 

The  addition  of  acid  or  strong  starters  in  quantity  sufficient  to 
bring  clean,  fresh  milk  at  once  to  the  acidity  desired  has  been  tried, 
but  without  satisfactory  results.  Success  in  making  Camembert 
cheese  calls  for  the  development  of  acidity  by  the  development  of  the 
typical  lactic  organisms  rapidly  enough  to  prevent  unfavorable  fer- 
mentation.    The  bacteria  added  in  very  sour  starters  seem  to  require 

"The  percentages  of  acidity  given  in  tliis  paper  are  obtained  by  titration 
of  17.6  c.  c.  of  milk  to  phenolpbthalein  with  n/10  sodium  bydroxid.  Tbe 
number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  alkali  required  divided  by  20  gives  tbe  per- 
centage of  acidity  calculated  as  lactic  acid. 


PREVALENCE    OF    GASSY    CURD.  19 

some  time  to  adjust  themselves  to  growth  in  fresh  milk.  If  in  this 
same  time  the  milk  is  curdled  and  partially  drained  of  whey,  which 
carries  out  with  it  a  large  part  of  the  milk  sugar,  the  souring  process 
does  not  seem  to  go  on  normally.  We  seek  by  the  addition  of  a 
starter  to  give  the  organisms  desired  a  thorough  distribution  through 
the  milk  and  to  produce  very  quickly  a  preponderance  at  least  of 
numbers  over  the  undesirable  species.  In  these  experiments  the 
advantage  seemed  to  have  been  thrown  away  when  rennet  was  added 
without  interposing  a  short  ripening  period.  Whether  the  failure 
in  such  a  case  is  due  to  incomplete  distribution  of  the  organisms  or  to 
the  changed  composition  of  the  milk  due  to  curdling  and  draining  is 
not  determined. 

The  presence  of  the  organisms  producing  gassy  curd  is  very 
common  in  Camembert  cheese.  Many  of  the  market  cheeses,  both 
domestic  and  imported,  show  more  or  less  gas  when  cut.  Although 
good  cheeses  often  show  traces  of  gas,  the  presence  of  many  gas 
holes  in  Camembert  lowers  its  quality.  A  careful  study  of  the  preva- 
lence of  gas  formation  and  its  control  seems  very  necessary  to  success. 

THE  PREVALENCE  OF  GASSY  CURD  AT  (  ERTAIN  SEASONS. 

For  three  successive  winters — 1907.  1008.  and  1900 — gassy  fer- 
mentations during  January,  February,  and  ^March  have  been  found 
and  shown  to  be  due  to  the  prevalence  of  the  coli-aerogenes  group  of 
bacteria  (identified  by  Prof.  W.  M.  Esten)  in  the  milk  during  these 
months.  Incubation  experiments  with  samples  of  milk  during  i)or- 
tions  of  the  winter  of  1909  failed  to  develop  nornuil  smooth  curd  in 
any  large  percentage  of  samples  studied.  Experimental  manufacture 
of  Camembert  cheese  during  the  months  mentioned  for  the  three 
years  was  seriously  interfered  with  by  the  constant  apj^earance  of 
these  organisms.  The  coli-aerogenes  bacteria  produce  gas  holes  of 
varying  size  in  Camembert  curd  and  give  to  the  newly  made  cheese 
an  offensive  odor.  In  these  same  months  of  each  year  the  normal 
activity  of  the  typical  lactic  species  {B(ifiilii,s  lacfis  acit/i).  which 
usually  reduces  or  entirely  eliminates  the  gassy  fermentation,  failed 
to  develop  in  untreated  milk.  Examination  of  the  j)roduct  of  cer- 
tain factories  in  New  York  State  showed  the  same  conditions  to  be 
prevalent  there  during  the  same  seasons.  Imported  cheeses  pur- 
chased for  examination  commonly  showed  more  or  U'ss  of  tiie  same 
trouble.  There  seems,  therefore,  to  iiave  Iuhmi  a  periodical  and  per- 
haps a  seasonal  faihire  in  the  activity  of  the  normal  souring  organism. 
even  when  present. 

In  general,  tiiis  has  resulted  in  the  domiiunic(>  of  the  gas-jiroducing 
tvpe  during  tiie  first  twenty-four  hours  at  least:  that  is,  during  the 
draining  period  of  this  kind  of  cheese.    This  is  long  enough  to  injure 


20 


CAMEMBERT    CHEESE    PROBLEMS. 


the  texture  and  odor  of  the  newly  made  cheese.  Such  gassy  cheese 
often  settles  together  in  the  succeeding  days  so  that  the  gas  holes 
are  closed  and  temporarily  nearly  obliterated.  In  such  cases  the 
typical  lactic  forms  have  probably  become  dominant  as  the  acidity 
of  the  cheese  increased.  After  the  milk  sugar  is  used  up  the  activity 
of  both  forms  ceases,  or  nearly  so.  In  the  later  stages  of  ripening, 
however,  after  the  cheese  has  begun  to  soften,  the  gas  organisms  seem 
to  resume  activity  and  render  the  ripe  cheese  noticeably  gassy  and 
often  seriously  bad-flavored. 

During  the  gassy  period  the  methods  which  produce  good  drainage 
and  smooth-textured  cheese  during  the  remainder  of  the  j^ear  have 
failed  to  be  effective,  either  in  our  experimental  work  or  in  factory 
practice,  as  judged  by  the  cheeses  seen  in  many  cases. 

A  series  of  experiments  was  made  to  devise  means  of  eliminating 
or  controlling  the  gassy  conditions.  Some  of  these  are  tabulated  as 
follows : 

Tablk  2. — Results  of  starter  experiments  &/y  C.  J.  Grant. 


Experi- 

Acidity 

ment 
No. 

Starter. 

and 
starter. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

1830. . . . 

0.0 

1831.... 

.0 

1834.... 

4.0 

0.225 

1835.... 

10.0 

.25 

183C. . . . 

1.8 

.19 

1837.... 

5.6 

.225 

1840.... 

.1 

.18 

1841.... 

.3 

.18 

1842.... 

.1 

1843.... 

.3 

1867. 

2.0 
1.0 

1870.... 

.18 

1872.... 

1.0 

.185 

1875.... 

.5 

2356c.. 

1.0 

.18 

2358.... 

1.0 

.18 

2360. . . . 

1.0 

.18 

2362.... 

1.0 

.18 

2364.... 

1.0 

.18 

Temperature — 


Hours 
ripened. 


Final 
acidity. 


At 
beginning. 


(«) 


24 

24 

24  ; 

27J 

24 

24 

24 

24  I 

24  I 

24  \ 

16  : 

16  I 

16 

16 

16 


Percent.  \ 
0.17    ! 
.18    ! 
.255  j 
.30    ! 
.31 
.44 
.20 
.215  I 
.25 
.27 
.225 
.245 
.23 
.275 
.18 
.21 
.215 
.20 
.20 


°F. 


Below  60. 
86 
86 
606 
666 
50 
50 
60 
60 
52 
58 
58 
60 
44 
51 
43 
42 
45 


Results. 


At  end.  I 


58 
58 
58 
50 
54 
54  i 
53  ; 
54 


Verv  gassv. 

Do. 
No  gas. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Very  little  gas. 

Do. 
Slightly  gassv. 
More  than  1842. 
Trace  of  gas. 
No  gas. 
Trace  only  of  gas. 

Do. 
No  gas. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 


"  Stood  in  refrigerator  forty-eie;ht  hours. 

*  Acidity  developed  very  rapidly  in  five  hours.     Put  in  refrigerator  the  remaining  time. 
«  The  last  five  experiments  were  made  to  show  the  relation  of  temperature  to  the  pro- 
duction of  acidity.     The  gassy  season  was  already  past. 


Our  work  indicates  that  much  more  care  should  be  given  to  the 
production  of  a  starter  in  these  cold  months.  Repeated  preparation 
of  pasteurized  milk  by  methods  satisfactory  at  other  seasons  showed 
traces  of  gas  after  inoculation  with  cultures  and  incubation.  ^\Tien, 
however,  the  skim  milk  used  was  boiled  no  difficulty  was  found  in 
obtaining  normal  souring.  As  shown  in  the  table,  the  starter  was 
added  in  amounts  varying  from  0.5  to  10  per  cent,  and  the  milk  was 
ripened  for  various  periods  after  the  addition  of  the  starter. 


AMOUNT   OF   STARTER    NECESSARY.  21 

In  these  experiments  it  was  readily  shown  that  the  addition  of  3 
per  cent  or  more  of  strong,  active  starter  would  reduce  the  gas  for- 
mation to  a  negligible  amount  if  a  comparatively  short  ripening 
period  were  used.  In  many  cases,  however,  the  acid  added  in  the 
starter,  together  with  that  developed  in  ripening,  affected  the  texture 
of  the  cheese  too  greatly.  Milk  titrating  from  0.'24:  to  0.25  per  cent 
acidity  nearly  always  produces  a  rough  or  mealy  curd.  It  is  difficult 
to  emplo}^  the  larger  percentages  of  starter,  because  they  tend  to 
raise  the  acidity  too  greatly.  Other  experiments  have  shown  that  a 
smaller  amount  of  starter  (0.5  per  cent,  or  sometimes  less)  acting 
for  a  longer  period  will  produce  what  may  be  called  a  protective 
ripening ;  that  is,  inhibit  gas  without  too  great  a  rise  in  the  titration 
figure.  An  experienced  factory  manager  has  said  that  he  regards  0.20 
per  cent  acid  by  titration  as  a  conservative  limit  to  ripening.  This 
figure  is,  in  our  experiments,  too  low  to  prevent  gas  formation  during 
the  winter  months.  Examination  of  cheeses  from  the  same  manager's 
factory  for  successive  seasons  showed  that  his  work  also  suffered 
from  gas  during  each  winter. 

As  noted  above,  the  same  trouble  has  been  seen  in  varying  degrees 
in  a  large  proportion  of  the  domestic  and  much  of  the  imported 
cheese  during  the  winter  months.  When  gassy  troubles  occur  there 
appears,  therefore,  good  reason  for  recommending  that  the  acidity 
at  renneting  time  should  be  raised  to  about  0.23  per  cent.  Long 
series  of  experiments  indicate  that  milk  can  be  handled  at  this  acidity 
without  injuring  the  texture  of  the  resulting  curd. 

AMOUNT   OF    STARTER    NECESSARY    FOR    RIPENING    MILK. 

The  length  of  the  ripening  period  desirable,  as  well  as  the  amount 
of  starter,  must  depend  upon  the  conditions.  The  same  result  can 
be  reached  in  different  ways.  If  milk  well  cooled  and  five  from  taint 
is  received  during  the  day  and  kept  over  night,  ripening  may  be  con- 
trolled by  a  mininnim  amount  of  starter  (0.5  per  cent  or  even  less, 
perhaps)  added  at  night  to  milk  kept  below  57°  F.  If  the  tempera- 
ture goes  higher,  too  high  acidity  may  be  expected.  The  same  good 
result  has  Ixhmi  obtained  by  adding  about  3  per  cent  of  good  starter 
when  the  milk  is  heated  for  cheesemaking  and  letting  it  rij^en  at  85 
degrees  until  it  has  developed  acidity  to  from  0.22  to  0.23  per  cent, 
but  in  this  case  it  must  be  watched  to  avoid  too  high  acidity.  In 
using  starters  it  is  quite  generally  agreed  that  a  fresh  starter  already 
quite  sour  to  taste  but  not  curdled  is  preferable  to  the  same  starter 
after  curdling.  The  organisms  in  the  sour  but  not  curdled  starter 
appear  to  adju.st  themselves  more  readily  to  the  fresh  milk  and  to  pro- 
duce attidity  more  quickly. 


22  CAMEMBERT   CHEESE   PROBLEMS. 

DETAILS   OF   CHEESEMAKING. 

Temperature. — The  mixed  milk  is  ordinarily  heated  to  85  or  8G°  F. 
The  limits  of  satisfactory  work  are  probably  from  8-t  to  90°  F.  If 
color  is  to  be  added,  this  should  be  done  before  the  milk  leaves  the 
mixing  vat. 

Setting  and  rennet. — When  heated,  the  milk  is  distributed  into 
curdling  cans.  In  factories  the  milk  is  often  piped  from  the  vats 
through  tin  or  tin-lined  pipes  running  above  the  row  of  cans,  with 
a  cock  opposite  each  can.  Special  forms  of  apparatus  are  a  con- 
venience but  not  necessary. 

The  milk  is  now  ready  to  "  set."  For  this  purpose  any  standard 
form  of  rennet  may  be  used.  Rather  more  rennet  is  desirable  than 
for  American  Cheddar  cheese.  Calculated  on  a  basis  of  100  pounds 
of  milk,  from  10  to  15  cubic  centimeters  of  commercial  liquid  rennet 
(3  to  5  ounces  per  1.000  pounds)  may  be  required  to  obtain  the 
proper  texture  of  curd,  according  to  the  conditions  of  work.  This 
calculation  assumes  the  use  of  good  clean  milk  not  over  eighteen  hours 
old,  testing  when  received  not  more  than  from  0.16  to  0.18  per  cent 
acid. 

Considerable  disagreement  is  found  in  the  recommendations  as 
to  the  amount  of  rennet,  the  temperature  to  use,  the  acidity,  and  the 
length  of  curdling  time  desirable  for  Camembert.  In  experimental 
work  different  practices  have  been  made  to  yield  cheeses  so  closely 
alike  as  to  baffle  the  description  of  their  differences.  In  general, 
comjjara lively  large  amounts  of  rennet  have  given  firmer  curds  and 
produced  better  textured  cheeses  than  when  minimum  amounts  were 
used.  Such  cheeses  drain  more  rapidly  at  first,  but  retain  more  water 
when  drainage  finally  ceases,  than  those  made  with  the  smallest 
amount  of  rennet  which  will  permit  working.  The  smaller  quantity  of 
rennet  produces  soft  curd  which  drains  more  slowly,  but  ultimately 
drains  lower  than  the  other  and  makes  hard,  dry  cheeses.  The 
strength  of  the  rennet,  the  acidity  and  composition  of  the  milk,  and 
the  local  conditions  are  variable  factors.  The  cheesemaker  must 
have  in  mind  the  ideal  condition  of  his  curd  and  adjust  his  own  prac- 
tice to  approximate  that  ideal. 

The  directions  given  here  do  not  attempt  to  settle  disputed  ques- 
tions about  rennet  and  its  effects.  They  do,  however,  represent 
accepted  i)ractices  which  have  also  given  satisfactory  results  in  ex- 
perimental work. 

Curdling  time. — Curd  should  be  ready  to  "  dip  "  in  from  one  and 
one-fourth  to  one  and  one-half  hours;  some  prefer  even  a  longer 
time.  This  will  be  indicated  by  the  curd  beginning  to  "  sweat," 
shown  by  the  appearance  of  drops  of  water  (whey)  scattered  over 
the  surface  of  the  mass  of  curd.     These  drops  soon  form  into  a  thin 


DETAILS   OF   CHEESEMAKING.  23 

h^heet  of  Avhey  upon  the  surface.  This  whey  if  tested  for  acidity  as  it 
separates  usually  tests  from  0.02  to  0.05  per  cent  less  than  the  milk  at 
setting  time.  The  curd  is  now  ready  to  "  dip,"  and  should  be  smooth- 
textured  and  quite  firm.  Cans  of  curd  should  not  stand  long  after 
they  are  ready  to  dip.  If  curd  stands  a  long  time  in  the  whey  it  may 
become  tough  or  sour,  or  may  cool  to  a  temperature  which  seriously 
delays  draining,  according  to  conditions.  If  large  amounts  of  milk 
are  to  be  handled,  the  cans  should  be  renneted  or  set  in  series  so  that 
they  become  ready  to  dip  as  needed. 

Cutting  the  curd. — Some  makers  cut  the  curd  slightly.  In  cutting 
they  use  a  curd  knife  designed  to  make  circular  cuts  in  the  mass. 
Although  such  curd  drains  more  rapidly,  very  little  advantage  can 
be  claimed  for  cutting  curd  at  all  if  working  conditions  are  what 
they  should  be."  In  most  experiments  the  advantages  in  texture, 
flavor,  and  handling  have  favored  curd  handled  without  cutting,  and 
this  is  the  practice  most  generally  observed  in  the  best  factories. 

Arranf/emeiit  of  the  hoops. — "\Miile  milk  is  curdling  the  matting 
is  spread  upon  the  draining  table,  and  the  hoops  are  arranged  upon 
the  matting  as  closely  as  possible.  The  whole  should  then  be  thor- 
oughly wet  with  warm  water  so  that  table  and  matting  shall  be  wet 
Avhen  dipping  begins.  If  the  matting  is  not  wet  the  curd  sticks  to 
it  and  causes  trouble  and  loss  from  breaking  the  cheeses  when  they 
are  turned  the  next  day. 

Dipping. — When  a  can  of  curd  is  ready  to  dip,  the  truck  is  brought 
into  position  beside  the  shelf,  and  the  can  gently  swung  upon  it. 
The  truck  is  then  pushed  into  the  aisle  between  the  tables  so  that 
the  edge  of  the  can  comes  as  close  as  possible  to  the  tops  of  the  hoops 
upon  the  table.  In  dipping,  each  dipperful  of  curd  is  lowered  into 
the  hoop  and  emptied  without  loss  of  time  and  with  as  little  breaking 
as  possible.  One  dipperful  each  is  put  into  a  series  of  hoops,  and 
the  process  repeated  until  each  hoop  contains  the  required  amount  of 
curd.     This  allows  time  for  partial  drainage  between  dipperfuls. 

To  obtain  cheeses  of  the  desired  size  with  the  regular  size  of  hoop 
it  is  often  necessary  to  fill  up  the  hoops  again  after  the  curd  has 
drained  an  hour  or  two.  Some  exi)eriments  indicate  that  the  same 
result  would  be  more  economically  reached  by  making  the  hoops 
about  half  an  inch  higher.  French  factories  report  that  2  liters  of 
milk  are  sufficient  to  make  a  chees<^  of  the  usual  size.  With  common 
factory  milk  in  this  country  r>  pounds  have  Ix'en  reported  as  neces- 
sary' to  produce  the  same  size  of  cheese.  It  is  important  that  tlie 
cheeses  he  uniform — that  is.  that  the  total  amount  of  milk  be  evenly 

"Cutting  curd  to  liiiston  draiiiii;;*'  is  n  nrourso  which  soniclimcs  aids  \vorl< 
with  t«M)  col<l  rooms  or  hmhiis  which  Ihh-oiuc  c<»ld  at  nipht.  Wlicii  iM>ssil)lc  tlio 
condition  stionld  l»c  corre*"!^!!  in  sucli  cases  as  s4»on  as  iK)ssil)lc  instead  of 
cbnnpinc  the  practice. 


24  CAMEMBERT    CHEESE    PROBLEMS. 

distributed  into  the  proper  number  of  hoops.  The  time  required  to 
do  this  will  vary  from  day  to  day  because  of  variations  in  the  con- 
dition of  the  curd,  but  this  should  not  be  permitted  to  affect  the 
size  of  the  cheeses. 

Two  workmen  to  each  can  of  curd  will  insure  that  the  whole  can 
will  be  emptied  so  quickly  that  breaking  and  draining  in  the  can  are 
reduced  to  a  minimum.  "When  a  can  is.  emptied  more  slowly,  some 
of  the  curd  becomes  broken  and  hardens  rapidly,  with  a  tendency 
to  the  production  of  uneven  texture  in  the  cheeses.  Quick  and  care- 
ful handling  produces  the  best  results. 

Draining. — In  a  room  at  approximately  G8°  F.  proper  draining 
will  require  about  eighteen  hours  before  the  cheeses  are  solid  enough 
to  turn  without  breaking.  In  this  time  they  should  have  drained  to 
less  than  2  inches  in  thickness — perhaps  1-J  inches.  AATien  ready  to 
turn,  the  cheese  should  have  a  sort  of  elastic  softness,  tenacious 
enough  to  permit  turning  with  the  hand  without  the  removal  of  the 
hoop.  This  turning  is  usually  done  the  first  thing  in  the  morning  of 
the  day  after  the  cheese  is  made.  If  the  room  is  dry.  some  cheeses  in 
draining  v.ill  adhere  to  the  hoops,  causing  a  thick  edge  and  a  "  dish- 
ing "  of  the  center,  which  sometimes  is  only  half  the  thickness  of  the 
edge.  ^Miile  this  is  especially  liable  to  occur  in  a  dry  room,  it  may 
also  happen  if  the  hoops  are  rough  or  rusty  inside  or  if  the  holes  ara 
too  large.  A  smooth  tinned  surface  with  very  small  holes  seems  to 
reduce  the  trouble  greatly  without  the  smallness  of  the  holes  check- 
ing the  drainage. 

TrimTiimg. — Eough  edges  may  be  trimmed  with  a  knife  or  an  in- 
strument designed  for  the  purpose  consisting  of  a  round  disk  with 
sharp  edges  attached  at  the  center  to  the  end  of  a  round  handle. 

After  dipping,  in  some  factories,  disks  of  heavy  tinned  iron  which 
fit  the  hoop  closely  are  dropped  upon  all  the  freshly  dipped  cheeses. 
These  disks  are  said  to  prevent  unevenness  of  surfaces.  They  exert 
a  slight  but  continuous  pressure  upon  the  curd.  A  sucking  disk  of 
rubber  on  the  end  of  a  handle  is  used  to  remove  these  in  the  morning. 

Salting. — After  turning,  the  cheeses  drain  for  several  hours  upon 
the  same  mat  in  the  place  in  which  they  were  made.  A\Tien  solid 
enough  to  stand  handling,  and  as  the  workmen  have  time,  the  cheeses 
are  salted.  Various  methods  are  in  vogue.  Some  cheesemakers  take 
one  or  two  cheeses  in  the  hands  and  roll  them  in  salt,  edges  and  both 
sides  at  the  same  salting.  Others  carefully  sprinkle  salt  on  the  upper 
surface  and  the  edges  at  one  time  and  salt  the  other  surface  at  a 
second  salting  half  a  day  to  a  day  later.  Many  makers  object  to 
handling  or  rubbing  the  surface  of  the  cheese  while  salting.  In  this 
practice  the  cheese  is  touched  as  little  as  possible  and  only  on  the 
edges.    Others  pay  no  attention  to  the  details  of  handling.    We  have 


DETAILS   OF   CHEESEMAKING.  25 

found   little   advantage   in   any    specific    form   of   manipulation    in 
salting. 

The  salt  used  is  usually  coarse  grained  and  thoroughly  dry.  AMien 
salt  is  applied  to  the  surface  of  a  cheese,  water  (whey)  is  extracted 
by  the  salt.  A  large  part  of  the  salt  flows  off  in  this  whey  and  is 
lost.  Some  of  it,  however,  diffuses  into  the  cheese.  The  taste  for  salt 
in  cheese  differs  greatly.  Different  makers  of  cheese  respond  to  this 
demand  b}'  using  different  amounts. 

The  salting  establishes  a  rind  upon  the  fresh  cheese.  On  this  rind 
the  molds  and  bacteria  develop  afterwards.  Many  theories  are 
heard  as  to  the  relationship  of  salting  to  draining  and  to  the  growth 
of  the  ripening  organisms.  Proofs  of  particular  views  are  difficult 
to  obtain  because  the  conditions  under  which  each  maker  has  devel- 
oped his  own  view  have  never  been  adequately  defined.  Experiments 
show  that  the  ripening  of  the  cheese  is  closely  dependent  upon  its 
water  content  and  the  ripening  conditions.  The  balance  between 
these  conditions  differs  in  different  factories,  but  may  still  be  adjusted 
to  obtain  good  final  ripening.  No  one  has  been  able,  therefore,  to 
test  all  these  theories. 

After  salting,  the  cheeses  are  placed  upon  salting  boards,  where 
they  remain  until  they  go  to  the  curing  room  (halloir).  The  boards 
are  first  conveniently  rested  upon  the  draining  table,  with  the  edges 
next  to  the  aisle  supported  by  the  raised  edge  of  the  table,  so  that  the 
M'orkman  can  grasp  the  edges  of  the  board.  If  space  is  needed,  the 
salting  boards  are  next  raised  to  the  shelf  above  the  draining  table, 
where  the\'  remain  for  the  final  day  of  draining.  In  this  way  the 
draining  table  is  cleared  for  cheesemaking  without  removing  the 
cheeses  from  the  room.  It  is  possible  to  use  the  same  tables  on  suc- 
cessive days  for  making  cheese  by  removing  cheeses  to  the  shelves 
above  in  the  morning  and  hurrying  the  salting  process,  but  larger 
table  space  permitting  half  the  table  surface  to  be  used  for  making 
cheese  each  day  seems  an  economy  of  labor. 

Draining  after  salting. — If  drainage  goes  on  properly,  a  cheese 
should  be  dry  enough  to  salt  eighteen  hours  after  it  has  been  dipped 
(on  the  morning  after  making),  or  even  in  less  time.  A  cheese  that 
is  wet  after  eighteen  hours  (on  tlie  morning  after  making)  will  prob- 
ably be  ready  to  salt  by  the  afternoon  of  that  day.  The  drier  cheese 
salted  the  second  day  should  stand  in  the  making  room  until  the  third 
afternoon — that  is,  about  thirty  hours  after  salting.  If.  however, 
the  cheese  is  wet  at  eighteen  hours  old  and  salting  is  delayed  until 
it  is  twenty-four  hours  okl  or  longer,  it  should  stand  after  salting  at 
least  twelve  hours  longer  than  the  otlier — until,  say.  forty-two  hours 
after  salting.  No  absolute  time  for  draining  can  be  stated,  but  the 
figures  given  may  be  regarded  as  desiral)le  intervals  found  in  practice 
under  the  conditions  named. 
3503— Bull.  115—09 4 


26  CAMEMBERT    CHEESE    PROBLEMS. 

Before  leaving  the  making  room  the  cheese  should  be  solid  enough 
so  that  there  is  no  tendency  for  the  fingers  to  dent  the  edges  of  the 
cheese  when  picking  it  up. 

INOCULATION    WITH    CAMEMBERT    MOLD. 

If  the  cheese  is  to  be  inoculated  at  all  with  the  Camembert  mold, 
this  should  be  done  just  before  salting.  Inoculation  with  mold  spores, 
however,  has  not  been  practiced  in  Camembert  cheese  factories.  Once 
in  the  factory,  the  mold  has  been  left  to  propagate  itself.  Examina- 
tion of  cultures  from  most  widely  separate  sources  indicates,  however, 
that  this  mold  is  not  native  in  America,  although  there  is  no  difficulty 
in  propagating  it  here.  There  seems  to  be  excellent  reason  for  intro- 
ducing this  mold  by  definite  inoculation  when  new  factories  are 
established.  Once  introduced,  so  long  as  proper  conditions  are  main- 
tained, the  mold  propagates  itself  so  well,  as  a  rule,  that  inoculation 
of  the  fresh  cheeses  from  day  to  day  with  pure  cultures  is  probably 
unnecessary. 

AMien  pure  cultures  are  found  necessary  it  would  be  best  to  procure 
them  from  some  reliable  laboratory'.  They  can,  however,  be  prepared 
at  home  by  anyone  slightly  familiar  with  the  methods  of  culture  used 
in  bacteriology  and  mixology.  "\^Tien  procured  they  may  be  used 
as  follows: 

Take  a  small  jar  with  a  tin  cover  which  has  been  punched  full  of  small  holes 
(or  an  ordinary  pepper  box).  Fill  it  half  full  of  water,  add  a  piece  of  moldy 
cracker  or  a  piece  of  cheese  with  a  good  growth  of  the  proper  mold,  and  shake 
thoroughly.  The  contents  of  the  jar  are  now  sprinkled  upon  the  surface  of 
the  cheeses,  which  are  then  turned  and  inoculated  in  the  same  manner  on  the 
other  side. 

Mold  for  inoculating. — For  those  desiring  to  prepare  inoculating 
material  the  following  practice  is  recommended:  Obtain  the  hard, 
dry  "water  cracker"  ("milk  crackers"  are  not  satisfactory).  Fill 
quart  fruit  jars  with  these  crackers  and  screw  on  the  covers  loosely 
without  rubbers.  Bake  in  an  oven  about  two  hours  (in  a  laboratory 
dry  sterilize  at  140°  C.  for  one  hour  or  more).  Care  should  be  used 
not  to  burn  the  crackers.  The  spores  can  be  transferred  directly 
with  a  sterilized  needle  from  a  stock  culture,  wdiich  should  be  pro- 
cured from  a  reliable  laboratory,  or  they  may  be  put  first  into  sterile 
water.  Each  quart  jar  requires  about  3  ounces  (100  c.  c.)  of  sterilized 
water  to  which  5  to  10  per  cent  of  lactic  or  tartaric  acid  has  been 
added  (or  the  water  may  be  boiled  thoroughly  in  a  flask  plugged  with 
cotton).  After  cooling,  this  water  may  have  the  mold  spores  put 
into  it  and  then  be  poured  into  the  jar  (precautions  being  used  to 
keep  out  contamination),  when  one  side  only  of  the  cover  is  raised 
sufficiently.  Roll  the  jar  in  the  hands  to  wet  all  the  crackers.  AVlien 
the  crackers  are  all  wet,  pour  off  the  excess  water  before  they  soften 


RIPENING   OF    CAMEMBERT    CHEESE. 


27 


into  a  pasty  mass.  Set  away  at  living-room  temperature  (70°  F.). 
The  crackers  should  be  well  covered  with  cottony  white  mold  in  ten 
days.  The  gray-green  color  of  ripe  spores  which  follows  in  a  few 
days  indicates  that  the  crackers  are  ready  for  use. 

THE   RIPENING   OF   CAMEMBERT   CHEESE. 

In  factories  in  France  and  in  those  established  by  French  cheese- 
makers  in  this  country  the  cheeses  are  made  in  a  ground-floor  room, 
as  a  rule,  then  carried  to  a  second-floor  room  just  above  the  making 
room.      (See  fig.   2.)      This  first  ripening  room  is  furnished  with 


Fio.  2. — Camcmbert  cheosc  factory  at  Lisioux,  Franco.  The  S(iuar('  windows  are  seen  in 
the  second-floor  rooms  wliich  are  used  in  the  first  two  weeks  of  ripening.  (I-'rom  Twenty- 
Becond  Annual  Report,  IJurenu  of  Animal  Industry.) 

windows  upon  two  sides,  at  least,  to  provide  facilities  for  rapid  venti- 
lation. Various  names  are  given  to  this  room,  one  of  the  commonest 
of  which  is  "  halloir."  It  is  characterized  by  ample  provision  for 
ventilation.  In  our  climate,  with  its  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  tlic 
windows  have  outer  and  inner  sash,  both  hinged,  making  possible 
free  ventilation  when  wanted  and  the  control  of  ventilation  or  of 
heating  and  cooling  in  accordance  with  changes  in  tlie  weather. 
These  windows  may  be  large  and  run  from  floor  to  ceiling,  or  may 
be  small  rectangular  openings  scattered  over  the  whole  side  of  the 
loom.  In  all  crises  they  must  In-  closely  screenetl  to  exclude  the  small 
flies  which  are  so  serious  a  pest  in  cheese  work. 


28 


CAMLMBEKr    CTEEoE    PROBLEMS. 


The  humidity  in  these  rooms,  as  observed,  has  varied  from  com- 
plete saturation  to  a  condition  permitting  rather  rapid  evaporation 
and  shrinkage  of  the  cheeses.  The  prevention  of  one  or  both  of 
these  extremes  is  one  of  the  common  difficulties. 

A  factory  manager  of  experience  jouts  the  proper  time  in  the  hal- 
loir,  or  first  room,  at  ten  to  thirteen  days.  In  the  further  ripening 
several  practices  are  found.    The  ideal  French  practice,  according  to 


Fig.    ."!. — "  Ilalloir 


or    first    ripening    room    in    American    Camembert    factory,    sliowing 
arrangement  of  siielves  and  cheeses  upon  them. 


the  same  manager,  transfers  the  cheese  from  the  first  room  to  the 
"  sechoir  "  (second  or  drying  room)  as  soon  as  the  moldy  rind  with 
traces  of  bacterial  slime  is  properly  established.  In  this  room  the 
ventilating  windows  are  opened  and  the  evaporation  of  the  extra 
moisture  is  accomplished.  The  cheeses  are  shrunk  from  1  to  3  ounces 
in  weight  and  reduced  in  size  until  they  exactly  fill  the  boxes.  They 
are  then  packed  and  crated  for  further  ripening.     To  insure  ideal 


RIPENING    OF    CAMEMBLRT    CHEESE. 


29 


conditions  such  cheeses  should  now  go  to  a  ripening  cellar  to  be 
finished  for  market.  AYlien  they  come  from  the  second  room,  soften- 
ing should  have  just  begun.  In  the  ripening  cellar  evaporation 
should  be  but  slight,  and  the  further  ripening  should  be  carried  as 
near  completion  as  the  market  will  permit  before  shipment. 

In    actual     practice,   however,   makers   both    in    America    and   in 
France  have  often  used  but  one  room,  the  so-called  '"  halloir,*'  in 


Fio.  4. — "  Sochoir,"  socond,  or  drylnj?  room  In  Amorlcan  factory,  arranged  as  in  a  French 

factory. 

wliidi  atmospheric  conditions  have  bccMi  kept  suHiciently  drv  to  l)ring 
the  clieese  to  the  desired  size  and  appearance  in  about  two  weeks  in 
Avarmer  parts  of  the  season.  The  cheeses  are  then  boxed  and  crated 
for  ripening  or  for  market.  The  dinicuhy  of  obtaining  tlie  desired 
conditions  in  the  two  rooms  has  often  led  to  tliis  sul)stitution  of  one 
ior  two  rooms,  with  very  commoidy  a  resultant  loss  of  character  to 
tlie  chee>^\    Either  the  room  is  too  dry.  which  produces  cheese  lacking 


30  CAMEMBERT    CHEESE    PROBLEMS. 

in  mold}^  covering,  shrinking  and  becoming  hard  too  rapidly,  or  it 
is  kept  too  wet,  so  that  ripening  develops  very  rapidly,  and  the 
cheases  must  be  sold  partly  ripe  or  lost.  Either  extreme  changes 
the  character  of  the  ripening.  In  both  cases  the  tendency  has  been 
to  box  and  pack  the  cheeses  while  still  containing  too  much  water, 
which  has  led  to  unpleasant  odors  and  unsatisfactory  appearance  in 
the  ripened  product.  Since  the  market  demand  for  cheeses  fully 
ripe  has  more  and  more  superseded  the  trade  in  half -ripe  cheese  in 
America,  it  has  become  increasingly  difficult  to  run  factories  as  at 
present  arranged.  * 


Fig.  5. — Another  part  of  the  French  factory  shown  in  fig.  2.     Observe  long  windows  la 
"  sechoir  "  at  right.    (From  Twenty-second  Annual  Report,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.) 

EQUIPMENT  or  RIPENING  ROOMS. 

For  ripening  Camembert  cheeses  a  particular  form  of  shelves  has 
been  developed.  The  permanent  part  of  these  consists  of  posts  from 
floor  to  ceiling  of  2  by  2  or  2  by  4  lumber,  in  sets  of  four,  5  to  6 
feet  apart.  In  each  group  the  posts  are  connected  in  pairs  by  per- 
manent crossbars  of  similar  size  about  1  foot  apart,  from  floor  to 
ceiling,  nailed  or  bolted  to  the  inside  of  the  posts,  as  shown  in 
figure  3.  Frames  of  strong  lumber  are  made  to  fit  exactly  between 
these  uprights  resting  on  the  crossbars.  These  frames  are  composed 
of  strong  side  and  end  pieces  and  lighter  cross  strips. 

Each  frame  is  covered  by  a  piece  of  coarse  matting  ("clayons"). 
This  consists  of  thin  round  strips  of  wood  held  1  to  1}  inches  apart 


EQUIPMENT    OF    RIPENING   ROOMS. 


31 


by  wire  strands.  The  cheeses  lie  directly  upon  this  matting.  A 
cheese  will  rest  upon  three  or  four  strips  so  that  the  surface  is  almost 
entirely  exposed  to  the  air.  Such  frames  carry  about  90  cheeses  each. 
Two  frames  exacth'  fill  the  area  between  four  posts,  so  that  all  the 
cheeses  are  within  reach  from  the  sides. 

Windows  well  screened  should  provide  abundant  light  for  working 
in  these  rooms.  Artificial  light  (aside  from  electric)  is  undesirable 
because  of  vitiating  the  air.  There  is  no  advantage  in  dark  rooms, 
because  experiments  indicate  that  the  trouble  from  fly  maggots  is 
greater  under  dark  conditions  than  in  fairly  Avell  lighted  rooms. 

Ripening  hoards. — Smooth  boards  8  to  9  inches  w^ide  and  exactly 
long  enough  to  rest  upon  the  same  suj)ports  are  used  to  replace  the 


Fig.  0. — Another  Freucli  faclury,  .showiUK  lai-f^e  windows,   wiili   Ijliud.s,    in  "  Mcclinir  "  on 
second  floor.     (From  Twenty-socond  Annual  Report,  Buroaii  of  Animal  Industry,  i 

frames  and  the  coarse  or  grating-like  matting  during  the  later  stages. 
These  boards  are  wide  enough  to  carry  two  rows  of  cheeses,  and  they 
are  smooth  to  avoid  the  tendency  of  the  cheese  to  stick  to  tlie  wood. 
The  cheeses  should  be  removed  to  the  boards  before  softening  begins. 
If  left  upon  the  mats  (clayons)  the  strips  of  wood  begin  to  cut  into 
the  ripened  cheese  as  soon  as  softening  commences. 

Before  making  any  recommendations  about  factory  construction 
we  must  first  discuss  the  problems  and  conditions  of  ripening,  so  far 
as  they  have  been  worked  out.  Factory  construction  must  sii|)ply 
these  conditions  as  ch)scly  as  po-jsiblc. 

THK    NKWl.V     M  ADK    CIIKKSK. 

Let  us  first  examine  the  newly  made  rliee>e.  At  twenty-foui'  hours 
old  such  a  cheese  connnonly  contains  from  <>0  to  "0  per  cent  of  wnter. 


32  CAMEMBERT    CHEESE    PROBLEMS. 

It  should  contain  a  little  less  than  CO  per  cent  after  salting  is  completed 
and  the  cheese  is  read}'  for  the  ripening  process. 

As  indicated  in  the  discussion  of  Table  1,  a  cheese  ready  for  market 
contains  about  50  per  cent  of  water.  During  the  ripening  process,  there- 
fore, the  cheese  must  lose  about  10  per  cent  of  its  weight.  In  actual 
practice  the  composition  of  newly  made  cheeses  Avill  vary  considerably 
from  da}'  to  day  under  the  most  careful  management.  In  most  cases 
these  variations  are  due  almost  entirely  to  the  rate  and  amount  of 
drainage.  The  weight  of  different  cheeses  and  different  brands  of  cheese 
in  the  nuirket  runs  from  10  to  12  ounces.  The  amount  of  loss  of  weight 
during  the  entire  ripening  process  varies,  probably,  from  8  to  12  per 
cent ;  that  is,  from  1  to  li  or  even  2  ounces  for  each  cheese.  Attempts 
to  eliminate  this  water  in  the  making  process  have  not  thus  far  in 
our  work  produced  cheeses  of  the  best  texture  and  flavor.  The  pres- 
ence of  part,  at  least,  of  this  extra  water  in  the  earlier  stages  of  ripen- 
ing appears  to  have  some  necessary  relation  to  the  proper  develop- 
ment of  the  ripening  agents  and  to  their  action. 

A  ripening  process  to  be  successful,  therefore,  must  take  into 
account  the  composition  of  the  freshly  made  cheese,  the  changes  of 
this  composition  sought  in  the  fully  ripe  cheese,  and  the  biological 
conditions  under  which  those  changes  can  be  produced.  During  the 
ripening  process,  therefore,  the  factors  to  be  watched  become  very 
largely  biological.  The  details  of  handling  must  be  based  upon  an 
appreciation  of  the  proper  appearance  and  feeling  of  the  cheese  at 
its  various  stages  of  ripening.  A  brief  consideration  of  the  agents 
of  ripening  and  their  several  parts  in  the  ripening  process  must  be 
introduced  here. 

THE    RIPENING    AGENTS. 

The  organisms  concerned  in  Camembert  cheese  ripening  have  been 
discussed  in  previous  papers."  Within  the  cheese,  under  normal  con- 
ditions, the  lactic  organisms  are  alwa3's  the  most  numerous  species 
present.  Other  species  in  smaller  numbers  are  found  in  freshly  made 
as  well  as  in  fully  ripe  cheeses.  Maze  attributes  to  the  lactic  organ- 
isms not  only  the  souring  of  the  curd  but  part  of  the  proteolytic 
action  in  cheese  ripening.  This  latter  effect  is  said  to  begin  after 
other  agents  have  reduced  the  acidity  first  produced.  Of  the  other 
organisms  present  no  species  so  far  studied  has  shown  by  its  num- 
bers, by  the  uniformity  of  its  presence,  or  by  its  effects  when  intro- 
duced into  experimental  cheeses  that  it  bears  any  important  relation 
to  cheese  ripening.  The  souring  of  the  curd  and  the  production  of 
certain  flavors  by  the  continued  action  of  particular  races  or  varieties 
of  lactic  bacteria  are  the  changes  that  have  been  surely  attributed 
by  our  work  to  presence  of  the  bacteria  inside  the  cheese. 

"  Rulletiiis  S2  and  109,  Bni'ean  of  Animal  Industry. 


THE   RIPENING   AGENTS.  33 

The  processes  which  transform  the  curd  in  three  or  four  weeks 
from  the  hard,  sour,  undigested  condition  into  the  soft,  smooth, 
buttery  consistency  of  ripe  cheese  appear,  therefore,  to  be  attributable 
to  the  organisms  found  in  the  rind ;  that  is,  in  the  surface  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  or  less.  The  species  present  are  the  Camembert  mold 
{Penicillium  cameinhevti^  or  its  white  form.  /-*.  camemherti  var. 
rogeri  Thom),  O'idhim  larfis,  and  the  species  of  bacteria  which,  with 
O'idium  lactis,  make  up  the  reddish  slime  so  commonly  found  upon 
the  surface  in  the  later  stages  of  ripening.  Other  studies  (b\^  Dox 
and  Thom)  have  shown  that  the  characteristic  appearances  of  ripe 
Camembert  are  due  to  very  complete  chemical  changes  of  the  casein : 
the  fat  is  little  affected.  The  Camembert  mold  {P.  camemherti) 
has  been  shown  to  produce  enzymes  capable  of  causing  these  textural 
changes  in  the  required  time,  but  not  capable  of  producing  the  flavors 
found.  Other  researches  by  various  authors  show  that  O'idium 
lactis  acting  alone  is  able  to  cause  more  or  less  similar  chemical 
changes,  but  that  the  texture  produced  is  different.  The  oidiuni. 
however,  is  shown  to  produce  a  flavor  which  forms  part,  at  least,  of 
the  characteristic  flavor  of  Camembert  cheese.  This  organism  forms 
a  considerable  part  of  the  rind  in  all  cheeses  studied.  It  penetrates 
rather  more  deeply  than  the  regular  Camembert  mold.  Its  presence 
has  been  demonstrated  in  the  thin  white  layer  commonly  seen  just 
under  the  rind  of  old  cheeses.  Together  with  the  several  species  of 
bacteria  it  is  found  also  in  the  reddish  slime,  of  which  it  is  always 
a  part. 

The  part  played  in  cheese  ripening  by  the  several  species  of  bacteria 
found  in  this  slime  has  never  been  fully  Avorked  out.  The  presence 
of  the  reddish  slime  covering,  or  partly  covering,  the  cheese  in  its 
later  stages  of  ripening  is  generally  found  associated  with  the  pres- 
ence of  excellent  flavors  and  textures.  So  close  is  this  correlation 
that  the  presence  and  proper  development  of  the  red  color  is  a  couunon 
basis  for  judging  chease  in  the  factory  and  in  the  nuukct.  Excellent 
textures  can  be  found,  however,  iji  cheeses  entirely  lacking  the  slimy 
covering,  but  such  cheeses  are  either  uiild  in  flavor  or  at  best  lack 
uniformity.  Without  proving  its  exact  function  in  the  process,  the 
presence  of  the  slinie  is  certainly  associated  with  oi-  is  a  ivsult  of  tlie 
conditions  under  which  the  best  cheeses  ripen. 

Maze  attributes  to  the  organisms  of  the  rind  (molds  and  bacteria 
together)  the  neutralization  or  destruction  of  the  acidity  of  the  curd. 
He  considers  their  proteolytic  action,  although  admitted  to  be  pres- 
ent, undesirable  in  character,  and  therefoiv  to  be  kej)t  as  small  as 
possible.  This  view  of  chees*'  rij)ejiing  attributes  the  i)roducti()n  of 
ammonia  to  the  organisms  of  the  rind,  together  with  minute  amounts 
of  substances  which  give  flavor  to  the  curd.     The  anunonia  is  said, 


34  CAMEMBERT    CHEESE    PROBLEMS. 

then,  to  neutralize  acidity  and  assist  in  dissolving  the  casein,  but  the 
bacteria  inside  the  cheese  are  regarded  as  the  chief  agents  of  the  best 
ripening.  Aside  from  this  the  organisms  of  the  rind  are  said  to  form 
a  necessaiy  protective  coating  which  jDrevents  the  access  of  air  to 
the  cheese  and  so  prevents  the  odors  and  flavors  of  rancidity. 

Several  species  are  present  in  all  cases,  although  the  exact  detenni- 
nation  of  the  part  each  plays  in  the  ripening  of  a  cheese  is  not  fully 
known.  Cheeses  can  be  ripened  to  approximately  the  same  appear- 
ance while  differing  markedly  in  the  balance  maintained  between  the 
various  species.  It  is  most  probable  that  the  result  is  more  or  less 
composite  in  every  case.  Certain  conditions  are,  however,  very  defi- 
nitely referable  to  a  predominance  of  particidar  species.  A  particular 
flavor  and  texture,  such  as  has  bwMi  obtained  with  considerable  uni- 
formity by  the  makers  of  certain  brands,  represents  a  fairly  uniform 
balance  of  the  activities  of  these  organisms  due  to  uniform  handling 
by  makers  and  dealers  for  long  i)eriods  of  time. 

OIDltM     KU'KNINC;. 

Upon  Camembert  curd  O'idoint  lacfis  will  spread  over  the  surface 
of  a  cheese  within  the  first  forty-eight  hours  in  a  warm  room.  If 
permitted  uninterrupted  growth  this  organism  will,  inside  the  first 
week,  produce  irregular  ridges  and  wrinkles  upon  the  surface  of 
the  mass  with  a  layer  of  liquefied  cheese  below  this.  This  liquid 
laj'er  develops  a  high  flavor.  The  same  conditions  which  permit  this 
rapid  development  of  Old 'turn  lacfis  favor  the  development  of  in- 
numerable yeasts  and  bacteria  upon  the  rind  of  the  cheese  with  the 
oi'dium.  These  bacteria  give  a  yellowish  color  to  the  surface  and 
produce  strong  and  often  offensive  odors. 

Such  a  rind  is  thin,  breaks  easily,  and  peels  off,  hence  must  be 
handled  carefully  or  the  cheese  is  lost.  Continued  action  of  the 
oi'dium  without  Camembert  mold  may  increase  the  liquid  layer,  but 
fails  to  produce  a  smooth  texture  to  the  center  of  the  cheese.  The 
growth  of  an  excess  of  oi'dium  indicates  either  cheese  with  too  high 
a  Avater  content  at  the  start,  or  too  wet  an  atmosphere  in  the  room — 
even  a  condition  in  which  a  change  of  air  by  ventilation  causes  the 
deposit  of  water  rather  than  drying.  O'idium  is  so  nearly  always 
present  in  milk  and  milk  products  that  special  measures  to  obtain  it 
do  not  seem  to  be  necessary.  It  is  associated  with  the  ripening  and 
peculiar  flavor  of  Limburg  and  dTsigny  as  well  as  Camembert  cheese. 
Experiments  and  observations  in  cheese  cellars  indicate  that  o'idium 
will  displace  Camembert  mold  in  very  wet  cheeses  or  in  saturated 
atmosphere,  but  that  proper  drainage  of  the  cheese  followed  by  a 
very  gradual  evaporation  restricts  the  growth  of  the  o'idium  and 
bacteria  more  than  of  the  Camembert  mold.     It  is  thus  possible  by 


THE  RIPENING  AGENTS.  35 

control  of  conditions  to  obtain  any  desired  balance  between  the 
organisms.  If  this  evaporation  goes  on  too  rapidly  or  the  curd  is 
too  dry  at  the  start,  both  of  these  organisms  are  so  handicapped  that 
the  native  molds  present  as  spores  in  nearly  all  milk  develop,  to  the 
injury  of  appearance  and  flavor. 

OTHER     ORGANISMS     OfCt'RRlNli     ON     (  AMKMBKKT     C  HKKSE. 

In  addition  to  the  organisms  necessary  to  ripening,  a  large  number 
of  species  of  molds,  yeasts  and  bacteria  are  constantly  found.  The 
essential  species  are  always  found  upon  good  cheese,  but  almost  never 
without  more  or  less  admixture  of  species  unnecessary  or  even  very 
objectionable.  Some  of  these  change  the  appearance  of  the  cheese; 
othei's  produce  odor  or  flavor.  Some,  for  example  the  yeasts,  may 
be  present  in  innnense  numbers  without  appearing  to  exert  any 
marked  influence  upon  the  ripening  process.  The  presence  of  these 
various  species  and  possible  damage  from  them  must  be  kept  in  mind 
in  every  discussion  of  the  handling  of  milk  and  milk  products. 

Of  the  molds  that  may  appear  a  few  require  special  mention. 
Roquefort  mold  {PeHicilUuin  roqueforti)  is  often  found  on  Camem- 
bert  cheese.  When  present  it  gives  a  bitter  flavor  to  the  cheese,  oti'en- 
sive  to  some  tastes,  appreciated  by  others.  The  true  flavors  of  Roque- 
fort cheese  produced  by  this  mold  do  not  appear  within  the  ripening 
time  of  Camembert.  The  most  troublesome  molds  are  those  which 
give  a  strongly  ammoniacal  odor — Penlrilliufn  hrericaule  and  two 
related  varieties.  P.  hremcanle  is  recognizable  by  the  yellowish- 
brown  patches  formed  upon  the  old  cheeses.  The  varieties  are  both 
white  or  slightly  creamy  in  color.  Under  wet  conditions  these  form 
*•  cottony  "  patches  almost  mistakable  for  nuicors.  Under  dry  oon- 
tlitions  the  spores  are  produced  as  a  white  dust  or  |)ow(ler  on  the 
surface  of  the  rind.  Once  learned,  the  odor  immediately  betrays  the 
presence  of  these  forms.  They  are  very  generally  ju-esent  upon  the 
cheeses  imported  from  France. 

No  practice  observed  eliminates  such  molds  entirely,  though  they 
are  especially  oft'ensive  upon  cheeses  when  a  heavy  moldy  rind  has 
been  developed.  If  conditions  of  ripening  are  pr()j)erly  maintained, 
the  injuries  from  these  other  species  are  at  the  same  time  reduced  to 
the  minimum. 

Green  molds  sometimes  Ih'couu'  very  numerous  in  a  factory,  espe- 
cially where  several  lines  of  work  are  going  on  in  the  same  building. 
The  mold  spores  are  extremely  light,  float  in  tlie  air.  and  lodge  in 
inaccessible  places.  They  may  be  reached  and  carried  down  by  filling 
the  air  with  steam.  When  the  steam  has  condensed,  the  thorough 
spraying  and  washing  down  of  the  walls  and  floors  will  relieve  the 
trouble.     But  the  organisms  regularlv  infecting  the  cheese  are  not 


36  CAMEMBERT    CHEESE    PROBLEMS. 

reached  by  such  means.     These  are  avoided  only  by  strict  cleanline&s 
of  handling  and  the  vigorous  destruction  of  badly  infected  material. 

CX)NDITIOXS    OK    RIPENING. 

The  conditions  of  ripening  must  permit  the  proper  development  of 
the  organisms  sought,  yet  maintain  such  a  balance  between  their 
activities  that  the  cheese  when  ripe  will  satisfy  the  trade.  Three 
factors  affect  the  activity  of  the  molds  and  bacteria  during  the  ripen- 
ing process:  (1)  The  initial  percentage  of  water  present  in  the 
cheese.  (2)  the  temperature  of  the  room,  and  (3)  the  relative  humid- 
ity of  the  atmosphere. 

PERCENTAGE    OF    WATER. 

As  already  noted,  cheeses  are  usualh^  drained  to  a  little  less  than 
60  per  cent  water  during  the  making  and  salting  process.  No  two 
lots  drain  to  exactly  the  same  percentage  of  Avater,  but  tests  of 
cheeses  which  resembled  as  closely  as  possible  those  seen  made  in  the 
factories  shoW'  the  cheeses  to  contain  about  10  per  cent  more  water  at 
the  beginning  than  at  the  end  of  the  ripening.  The  cheese  maker 
must  be  able  to  judge  by  the  feeling  of  the  cheeses  how  closely  they 
approach  such  an  average  condition.  AVhen  above  or  below  the 
average  in  water  content  special  care  would  be  needed  to  obtain  the 
best  results.  Comparison  of  various  makes  of  cheeses  indicates  that 
particular  factories  or  groups  of  factories  maintain  fairly  close  con- 
formity to  a  certain  ideal;  other  factories  or  groups  set  the  ideal 
somewhat  higher  or  lower.  The  resulting  cheeses,  therefore,  as 
found  in  the  market,  show  the  differences  of  their  handling  by  con- 
trasting textures,  appearances,  and  often  more  or  less  intense  flavors. 

TEMPERATUKK. 

Factory  observation  and  experiments  agree  in  fixing  the  best  limits 
for  work  at  52  to  58°  F.  (12  to  15°  C.).  Although  many  factories  in 
France  make  little  provision  for  artificial  heat,  these  limits  would 
include  the  larger  part  of  the  practice  where  temperature  is  con- 
trolled. If  the  rooms  are  colder,  development  is  delayed  without 
advantage.  If  the  rooms  are  much  above  58°  F.,  the  growth  of  all 
the  organisms  present  becomes  disproportionately  increased,  the 
proper  balance  between  their  activities  is  lost,  and  rapid  decay  may 
be  expected.  The  selection  of  temperature  within  these  limits  be- 
comes a  matter  to  be  determined  b}'  local  conditions  and  the  judgment 
of  the  maker.  The  more  rapid  ripening  occurs  at  the  higher  tem- 
perature. Considerable  control  of  results  is  therefore  possible  from 
small  changes  in  temperature. 


CONDITIONS   OF   RIPENING.  37 


RELATIVE    HUMIDITY. 


The  humidity  of  the  air  in  the  ripening  rooms  is,  if  possible,  even 
more  important  than  the  temperature  and  the  initial  water  content 
of  the  cheeses.  The  percentage  of  relative  humidity  controls  the 
rate  of  the  evaporation  of  water  from  the  cheese.  As  the  humidity 
of  the  air  in  the  room  approaches  saturation  (100  per  cent)  the  rate 
of  evaporation  from  the  cheeses  diminishes  until  a  point  of  equi- 
librium is  reached  above  which  no  water  is  lost,  or  moisture  is  even 
condensed  upon  the  surface.  At  that  point  the  vapor  tension  of  the 
cheese  exactly  equals  that  of  the  surrounding  air.  This  point  of 
equilibrium  differs  for  cheeses  of  different  water  content.  It  is  con- 
siderably higher  for  cheeses  at  GO  per  cent  water  content  than  for 
cheeses  at  50  per  cent.  In  one  experiment  about  150  gi-ams  of  cheese 
testing  about  65  per  cent  water  evaporated  at  the  rate  of  1  gram 
per  day,  whereas  a  similar  amount  of  cheese  testing  about  10  per 
cent  less  lost  weight  at  the  rate  of  only  0.3  gram  per  day  in  the  same 
room  at  a  relative  humidity  approximating  88  per  cent.  Although 
the  temperature  was  low,  the  sample  high  in  water  content  showed 
marked  signs  of  decav  in  ten  days  under  these  conditions.  A  relative 
humidity  of  88  per  cent  was  manifestly  too  high  to  handle  cheese 
as  wet  as  this.    The  other  was  found  in  excellent  condition. 

Cheeses  enter  the  ripening  period  with  about  8  to  10  per  cent 
excess  of  water,  which  must  be  lost  during  the  process.  The  humid- 
ity of  the  air  surrounding  the  cheeses  must  therefore  be  so  handled 
that  this  excess  of  water  may  be  removed.  Under  factory  conditions 
thousands  of  cheeses  are  placed  in  one  room.  Ventilation  must 
therefore  be  provided  sufficient  to  carry  away  large  aggregate  amounts 
of  water,  but  must  be  controlled  so  that  the  rate  of  removal  shall  not 
cause  shrinkage  and  hardening.  The  working  temperature  ought  not 
to  be  affected  seriously  by  this  ventilation. 

If  the  relative  humidity  becomes  too  high,  water  gathers  in  beads 
and  drops  upon  the  walls  and  ceiling  and  upon  the  cheeses  and 
bacterial  growth  becomes  much  more  rapid  than  mold  growth.  Mold 
may  even  be  suppressed  entirely.  Under  these  conditions  the  cheese 
develops  strong  odors  and  tends  to  liquefaction  and  decay.  Too  wet 
conditions  are  usually  most  quickly  detected  by  the  presence  of  loose 
floccose  colonies  of  white  shimmering  mold  (Muror  species). 

If  evaporation  is  too  rapid,  tlie  danger  signal  is  quickly  noted  by 
passing  the  fingers  over  the  edges  of  the  cheeses.  Hard  knifelike 
edges  indicate  too  rapid  dr^'ing.  The  dieeses  shouhl  feel  moist  (not 
wet)  to  the  very  edge.  Under  too  dry  conditions  patches  of  green 
mold  apjx'ar  quickly.  Various  species  of  Penicillium  will  gi-ow  upon 
curd.  "\Mien  the  conditions  are  right  (^amembert  mold  will  overgrow 
most  of  the  useless  or  noxious  forms.      When  the  air  and  the  curd 


38  CAMEMBERT   CHEESE    PROBLEMS. 

become  drier  this  advantage  is  lost,  so  that  the  appearance  of  green 
patches  becomes  an  evidence  of  such  dryness. 

Between  the  wet  and  dry  limits  described  there  is  considerable 
latitude  in  which  the  results  obtained  differ  greatly  with  the  details 
of  management.  The  general  principles  already  discussed  apply 
equally  to  all  practices. 

Within  these  limits  of  humidity  two  extremes  of  practice  may  be 
described.  In  one  the  humidity  of  the  air  is  kept  approximately 
uniform,  so  that  the  fresh  cheeses  properly  drained  evaporate  some- 
what rai)idly,  but  the  rate  of  evaporation  gi'adually  falls  to  a  condi- 
tion of  equilibrium  by  the  time  the  cheeses  have  reached  the  proper 
moisture  content.  This  period  should  be  two  to  three  weeks,  accord- 
ing to  the  temperature  used.  During  the  further  ripening  little,  if 
any.  loss  of  weight  should  occur.  In  such  a  scheme  a  single  room  is 
used — the  halloir. 

In  the  other  the  humidity  is  kept  as  high  as  the  condition  of  the 
cheeses  will  permit,  until  the  rind  with  its  organisms  becomes  well 
established  and  reaches  the  desired  balance  between  mold,  oidium. 
and  reddish  bacteria.  This  requires,  according  to  its  advocates,  ten 
to  twelve  days  if  successful.  Clieeses  must  be  removed  from  this 
room  as  soon,  however,  as  they  have  reached  the  proper  appearance. 
They  are  then  taken  to  the  second  room,  or  "  sechoir  *"  (drying  room), 
where  the  remaining  excess  of  water  is  dried  out  quickly,  so  that  they 
reach  nearly  the  same  condition  in  about  the  same  time  as  in  the 
practice  first  described.  The  change  in  water  content  is  accomplished 
differentl}',  however.  The  latter  practice  on  the  whole  probably 
produces  stronger  flavored  cheeses  than  the  former.  Between  these 
extremes  many  variations  are  practiced.  The  many  differences  in 
texture  and  flavor  in  the  imported  cheeses  may  be  accounted  for  in 
such  differences  of  handling. 

OTHER    CONDITIONS. 

A  detailed  discussion  of  the  observations  and  appearances  during 
the  various  stages  of  normal  and  abnormal  ripening  will  explain 
many  points  in  the  process. 

Under  normal  conditions  a  cheese  will  begin  to  feel  "  greasy  '' 
in  two  or  three  days.  Examination  of  its  surface  will  show  some 
growth  of  oidium  and  often  various  species  of  yeast.  The  normal 
process  of  souring,  if  successful,  reduces  the  growth  of  bacteria 
(other  than  lactic  species)  to  a  minimum  until  a  later  period.  By 
the  end  of  a  week  in  the  ripening  room  colonies  of  Camembert  mold 
should  be  definitely  visible;  w^ithin  ten  days  of  ripening  such  colo- 
nies if  undisturbed  will  assume  the  gray-green  color  indicative  of 
ripe  conidia.    The  best  practice  calls  for  a  thin  or  somewhat  incom- 


INFLUENCE    OF    CLIMATE    ON    RIPENING.  39 

plete  covering  of  mold,  well  distributed,  however,  over  the  surface 
of  the  cheese.  ^^Tiile  upon  the  mats  (clayons)  in  the  first  i-oom 
(halloir)  this  moldy  covering  is  commonly  heaviest  upon  the  under- 
side of  the  cheese  if  it  remains  unturned  for  a  considerable  time.  If 
allowed  to  stand  on  a  board  during  this  time  the  mold  will  grow  so 
firmly  to  the  wood  that  the  cheese  will  be  broken  in  removing  it. 
Frequent  turning  therefore  tends  to  insure  well-distributed  mold. 
If  a  side  or  any  considerable  area  lacks  mold  entirely  it  becomes 
covered  with  bacteria  and  oi'dium.  Avhich  make  a  greasy,  soft  rind 
and  lead  rapidly  to  overripeness.  bad  flavors,  and  decomposition  if 
water  content  is  still  high.  On  the  other  hand,  if  mold  is  permitted 
to  develop  in  a  dense  mat  over  the  whole  cheese  it  produces  a  ripen- 
ing of  excellent  texture,  but  as  a  rule  one  lacking  in  flavor.  Such 
a  cheese  is  creamy  in  texture  and  flavor,  but  is  often  found  to  have 
none  of  the  characteristic  flavor  of  Camembert.  The  appearance  of 
the  heavy,  moldy  rind  is  objected  to  by  many.  The  flavors  sought 
seem  to  be  attributable  to  a  combination  of  the  effects  of  the  two 
molds  under  conditions  favoring  the  development  also  of  slimy  bac- 
teria. Successful  ripening  must  depend  upon  the  balancing  of  the 
activities  of  these  organisms.  If  handled  perfectly  there  is  very 
little  if  any  growth  of  Camembert  mold  after  the  first  two  weeks. 
As  Dox  "  has  shown,  after  the  mold  has  begun  to  produce  spores 
there  is  a  rapid  escape  of  the  ripening  enzyme  from  the  mold  into 
the  cheese.  Just  at  this  time — the  tenth  to  fourteenth  day,  according 
to  conditions — the  softening  of  the  curd  under  the  moldy  riml  begins 
to  be  noticeable. 

THE   CLIMATIC    FACTOR. 

The  preceding  pages  present  the  general  results  to  be  obtained  and 
the  approximate  limits  within  which  the  work  can  be  done.  The 
working  equipment  for  reaching  these  results  remains  to  be  dis- 
cussed. Aside  from  th(>  occasional  farm,  the  factory  is  the  unit  of 
production.  In  building  the  rij)ening  rooms,  the  conditions  of  clieese 
ripening  must  !>e  furnished.  Either  u\nm  the  small  or  the  hirger 
scale,  a  great  variety  of  equipment  can  be  utilized.  Where  suial! 
numl^ers  of  cheeses  were  made  in  France  the  work  was  done  in  parts 
of  dwelling  houses  or  in  outbuildings  adapted  for  the  j^urpose.  Het- 
ter  equipment  and  more  uniform  results  begin  to  be  obtainetl  when 
the  output  reaches  200  to  400  cheeses  a  day,  which  is  i)erhaps  the  limit 
of  production  without  tiie  construction  of  expensi\e  buildings. 

Tlie  economies  of  e(|uipment  and  administi'ation  begin  to  be  possi- 
ble when  the  numU'r  of  cheeses  readies  1.000  to  •2,000  a  day.  The 
factories  built  in  America  have  reproduced  types  of  construct  ion 
common  in  France.     Although  large  numlnMs  of  good  cheeses  have 


oliulletiii   1(l!>.  P.iiro:Mi  of  .\iiim:il    lulusliy.  L.  S.   I  ».'i>iirt  in.Mit   of  A;.Mi*iiltnn'. 


40  CAMEMBERT    CHEESE    PROBLEMS. 

been  made,  the  Avork  has  been  attended  with  many  losses  which  were 
found  difRciilt  to  exphiin.  The  discussion  of  ripening  conditions 
already  given,  however,  points  to  the  probable  cause  of  many  of  these 
troubles.  The  biological  factors  in  cheese  ripening  demand  that 
temperature  be  kept  within  quite  narrow  limits  and  that  the  relative 
humidity  be  kept  quite  high,  perhaps  85  per  cent.  Without  disturb- 
ing temperature  or  relative  humidity,  j^rovision  must  be  made  to 
evaporate  about  10  per  cent  of  water  from  every  cheese.  The  aggre- 
gate is  large  if  we  figure  that  the  factory  must  accommodate  at 
least  twenty  days'  make  (10,000  cheeses  for  a  small  factory)  and 
evaporate  at  least  1  ounce  from  each.  Air  already  at  80  to  85  satu- 
ration takes  up  little  water,  hence  the  rate  of  change  of  air  must 
be  rapid.  The  climatic  factor  in  ripening  is  thus  introduced.  In 
general  this  may  be  stated  as  follows:  If  the  atmospheric  tempera- 
ture be  higher  than  the  working  temperature,  the  air  for  ventilation 
must  be  cooled.  Cooling  raises  the  relative  humidit}'^  toward  the 
dew-point  (saturation).  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  weather  be  cold, 
the  air  must  be  warmed ;  but,  in  heating,  air  increases  its  capacity  to 
absorb  water.  Since  the  water  is  not  present  in  such  air  when  it  is 
introduced  into  a  ripening  room,  water  is  rapidly  absorbed  from 
the  cheeses. 

To  furnish  working  conditions,  both  temperature  and  relative 
humidity  must  average  closely  enough  to  the  limits  of  cheese  ripen- 
ing to  i^ermit  of  successful  adaptation  to  the  demands  of  the  process. 

COMPARISON   OF   AMERICAN   AND  FRENCH    CLIMATIC   CONDITIONS. 

In  seeking  a  basis  for  comparing  American  with  French  conditions 
a  table  has  been  made  from  published  weather  reports  of  both  coun- 
tries. In  the  published  reports,  mean  temperature  and  mean  per- 
centages of  relative  humidity  are  given  for  each  month  of  the  year. 
The  French  figures  have  been  selected  from  various  published  tables 
to  show  the  niean  temperature  and  mean  relative  humidity  of  the 
whole  region  as  completel}^  as  possible  without  complicating  the  table. 
Extremes  of  temperature  are  given  in  some  cases  to  indicate  the 
most  rigorous  conditions  to  be  expected,  in  order  to  compare  with  the 
American  figures  which  follow.  The  latter  are  taken  directly  from 
Stockman's  paper,"  except  that  the  "  mean  "  column  was  averaged 
from  the  monthly  mean  maximum  and  minimum  temperatures. 
A\Tien  possible  the  number  of  years  recorded  in  compiling  the  figures 
is  indicated  in  the  table. 

"  Stockman,  W.  B.  Temperature  and  Relative  Humidity  Data.  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Weather  Bureau,  Bulletin  O  (W.  B.  No. 
334).     1905. 


COMPARISON   OF    CLIMATE    OF   FRANCE   AND  AMERICA. 


41 


Table  3. 


-Mean  tetuitcraturc  and  rchiiirc  humidity  of  points  in  France  and  in 
the  United  States. 


Caen,  altitude  69 
feet. 

Paris,"  altitude  2.56 
feet. 

Ecorcheboeuf.'> 
near  sea. 

T„          Rouen, 

Havre       altitude 
±ia%re.       39  fppt 

7 

l.i                 7 

1 

7                15 

Month. 

Mean 

tenip«'ra- 

lun'.<" 

Mean 
relative 
huinid- 

itv.d 

Moan           ***'*° 

Mean          ^<l«^" 
tempera-    ^^f'^^'^i^ 

Mean         w 

January 

February... 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

.\uKust 

SeptemtxT. 

Octolier 

Novenil)er. . 
Decenil)er. . 


'F. 
.39.9 
43.7 
4t>.  2 
51.1 
55.4 
00.8 

r.3.9 

t)3.3 
59.0 
51.3 
4.5.7 
40.3 


Per  cent. 
85.0 
84.7 
81.5 
80.0 
81.0 
80.0 
80.7 
82.4 
83.0 
80.0 
86. 0 
8<J.O 


'F. 
37.2 
40.2 
44.0 
50.3 
55.4 
61.8 
66.  0 
65.0 
59.0 
50.4 
43.2 
37.0 


87.4 
86.  2 
77.0 
71.3 
71.7  I 
74.9  , 
75.9  ' 
76.1 
83.5 
87.1 
87.2 
91.1 


°F. 

Per  cent. 

37 

88 

40 

87 ; 

43 

80 

47 

78  ' 

51 

'" 

57 

80  1 

61 

80 

61 

82  ! 

57 

85  1 

50 

84 

43 

85 

38 

89 

•  cent. 
86. 0 
84.0 
SO.  7 
77.5 
77.3 
77.5 
78.0 
79.0 
81.4 
83.0 
85.0 
87.0 


39.9 
41.9 
45.1 
50.7 
55. 0 
61.5 
65.7 
05.1 
00.1 
50.8 
44.2 
39.5 


Mean 


Highest  t<>inperaturo 
Lowest  temperature 


Years  observed . 


Month. 


'F.       '  T. 

January 37.9  23.0 

February 40. 3  24. 0 

March 44.4  32.0 

April 49.5  47.0 

May .")4.5  r,9.a 

June I         61.5  (W.5 

July '         t«.7  73.0 

Aueu--*! <14.H  71.0 

."^epteinlM-r 00. 3  id.  rt 

October .50.5  .51.5 

N'ovemlxT 43.7  .39.0 

Dtxeinlx'r 3H.  1  2*.).  0 

Mean .Vi.  9  4s.  5 

HiRhest  ti'iiifH>raliiri' ' 

I.x)we.st  tcni|x'ri»ttirf 


Binghaniton,  X.  Y.,  altitude  875 
feet. 


Temperature. 


Mean  Mean 
ma.xi-  mini- 
mum,    mum. 


Mean 
relative 
humid- 
it  V. 


°F. 

°F. 

Pcrcl. 

"F. 

°F. 

'F. 

P(r  cent. 

31 

15 

so.  4 

25. 0 

:« 

17 

81 

32 

16 

7S.  9 

23.0 

30 

16 

80 

40 

24 

76.9 

.33.0 

41 

2,5 

81 

.5«i 

38 

09. 3 

45. 5 

.).) 

3ti 

76 

69 

.50 

71.4 

.57. 0 

•17 

47 

78 

78 

.59 

71.9 

6»;.  0 

77 

.).) 

77 

i          82 

<A 

71.9 

72.  0 

83 

61 

74 

1         SO  1 

62 

75.  7 

69.  5 

so 

59 

83 

72 

n.) 

77.3 

<i2.  5 

73 

51 

89 

60 

43 

79.  3 

.52.  5 

(B 

42 

92 

4f. 

32 

M).  7 

3H.0 

45 

31 

91 

36 

•22 

M.3 

2S.  5 

35 

22 

76 

57 

40 

76. 2 

4.5.5  ; 

y.  .Vuc. 
•  Jan. 

38 

1(H)*  Jnlv. 

W.'  Ju 
-2t. 

-24' Jan. 

a  Relative  humidity  data  for  I';irl.sare  verv  compleli-lv  discu.s,sc<l  in  .\nnali's<lu  Murrau  ('•'iitral  M^'ti'oro- 
loijiquede  Franw,  lH.sn.  II.  hh;. 

i>  EcorchclMi'\if  is  9  mili-s  from  the  sea.  lM'twe«>n  Koui-n  and  I)lep;x'.  Full  diiia  for  Itii.s  .sintion  an-^iven 
by  Mouri'au.x  in  Annuie.sdu  Hun-ati  Central  M^iK^jrolojilque  dt-  Frano'.  Iv.Mi.  vol.  1. 

<■  Report  of  \<)yai;i' of  II.  .M.  S.  ChillrmifT.  1H73  ls76,  I'hvsies  and  Chemi.-itrv.  vul.  11.  pp.  202-J04. 

dFroin  .Vnnales  du  Bureau  Central  .M<'t<5oroloKi<iue  d<'  France,  l.S<.»<>- 190,5. 


42 


CAMEMBERT    CHEESE    PROBLEMS. 


Table  .'1 — Mean  Icmiicraturc  nnd  rclutirc  Itiniiiditi/  of  itoinln  in  France  and  in 
the   United   States — Continued. 


Milwaukee,  Wis.,  altitude  Oyi  feet. 


San  Francisco,  Cai.,  altitude  15.3  feet.' 


Years  ol)s<Tve<l. 


Month. 


Januarj' 

Fuljruury 

Marc!i 

April 

Ma.v 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

Noveinlier 

December 

Mean 

Highest  temperature 
Lowest  temperature 


Temperature. 


Mean  j  Mean 
ma.xi-  mini- 
mum,       mum. 


Mean 
relative 
humid- 
ity. 


Me;ui. 


Temperature. 


Mean  Mean 
maxi-  mini- 
mum,       mum. 


F. 

T. 

20.0 

27 

22.5 

30 

30.5 

37 

44.0 

51 

53.5 

G2 

03. 5 

72  1 

70.0 

78 

03.5 

70 

02.0 

70 

50.5 

58 

30.0 

43  : 

20.5 

33 

100°  July. 
-8  to  -25°  Nov.,  Mar. 


J'lr  cent. 

°F. 

"F. 

"F. 

78.4 

50.0 

oa 

45 

77.0 

52.5 

58 

47  ! 

77.  G 

54.0 

00 

48 

73.1 

55.0 

01 

49 

71.2 

57.0 

03 

51 

73.4 

59.0 

00 

52 

70.0 

59.0 

05 

53 

72.0 

59.0 

05 

53 

74.4 

01.0 

08 

54 

75.0 

59.5 

00 

53 

70.9 

50. 5 

02 

51 

77.4 

51.5 

50 

47 

74.9 

50. 0 

02 

50 

Mean 
relative 
humid- 
ity. 


Per  cent. 

79.7 


79.0 
80.1 
84.4 
85.8 
81.1 
78.0 
77.3 
79.7 


70.9 


100°  June. 
29°  Feb. 


A  study^  of  this  table  is  instructive.  Caen  is  near  the  western 
edge  of  the  section  Avhere  the  hirgest  amount  t)f  Canieinl)ert  is  pro- 
duced, but  probably  represents  a  fair  average  of  the  working  condi- 
tions. It  will  be  noted  that  in  no  month  does  the  mean  temperature 
fall  below  39°  F.  The  lowest  average  of  minima  for  any  month 
was  about  33°  F.  The  mean  relative  humidity  does  not  fall  below 
80  per  cent,  while  in  the  eight  busy  month.s — August  to  April — it  is 
still  higher.  Ventilation  is  practically  possible  by  letting  outside 
air  enter  at  open  windows  at  almo.st  any  time  in  the  year  without 
introducing  freezing  temperature  or  excessively  dry  air.  A  small 
amount  of  artificial  heat  will  produce  the  needed  temperature  at 
any  time.  There  are  but  two  months  of  the  year  when  the  tempera- 
ture is  too  warm  for  work  within  the  desirable  limits  already  given. 

Compare  with  these  the  figures  for  the  American  cities  listed,  ex- 
cepting San  Francisco.  The  averages  for  Septeml^er,  October,  and 
Xovember  are  close  enough  in  some  cases  to  those  given  for  Caen  to 
suggest  success.  In  December,  January,  February,  and  ^larch  our 
relative  humidity,  at  be.st,  falls  several  per  cent  below  that  of 
Caen,  Avhile  the  mean  air  temperature  is  10  to  20°  F.  lower.  Exami- 
nation of  the  full  reports  of  variations  in  temperature,  of  daily 
maxima  and  minima,  disclo.ses  more  striking  contrasts  than  the 
monthly  means.  Xature  has  furnished  the  French  factory  a  set  of 
working  conditions  which  requires  only  the  opening  and  closing  of 
the  windows  w  ith  at  times  a  moderate  amount  of  artificial  heat.    San 


COMPARISON    OF    CLIMATE    OF    FRANCE   AND   AMERICA.  43 

Francisco  alone  of  the  American  cities  given  is  found  to  have  climatic 
conditions  even  approximating  those  of  Normandy.  In  the  regions 
represented  by  the  other  American  cities  the  mean  temperatures 
from  May  to  September  are  mostly  prohibitive  of  work  because  too 
warm;  from  September  to  December  they  suggest  possible  success; 
from  December  to  March  mean  temperature  and  often  relative 
humidity  are  both  low.  Not  only  are  the  means  low,  but  the  varia- 
tions are  greater.  Cold  northwest  storms  bring  conditions  much 
lower  and  last  often  a  week  or  more  at  a  time.  Factory  managers 
report  that  such  storms  mean  the  drying  out  and  often  the  ruin  of 
a  large  part  of  the  cheeses  in  stock.  Such  a  storm  is  said  to  cause 
the  cheeses  to  shrivel  up  as  if  in  a  warm,  dry  room.  To  obtain 
working  conditions  the  outside  air  must  be  warmed  at  least  10  and 
often  20  to  30^  F.  In  this  process  its  percentage  of  relative  humidity 
falls  still  lower. 

A  problem  may  be  given  to  illustrate  conditions  in  a  ripening  room 
at  All)any  under  average  conditions  for  January :  Mean  tempera- 
ture, 23°  F. ;  mean  relative  humidity,  80.4  per  cent;  1  cubic  foot  of 
air  saturated  (100  per  cent)  relative  humidity  at  23°  F. contains  1.488 
grains  of  water;  at  80.4  per  cent,  I.IDG  grains  of  water.  The  same 
cubic  foot  of  air  heated  to  r)0°  F.  would  hold  at  saturation  (100  per 
cent)  4.070  grains  of  water.  But  as  introduced  it  does  contain 
1.19()  grains.  Its  percentage  of  relative  humidity  is  therefore  I.IDG-^ 
4.07()=29.3.  If  the  working  temperature  were  lowered  to  40°  F. 
the  corresponding  figure  would  be  about  40  per  cent  relative  humid- 
ity. Such  air  introduced  into  the  ripening  room  absorbs  water  rap- 
idly until  a  point  of  equilibrium  is  reached.  This  Avater  comes  from 
the  cheeses.  It  is  thus  impossible  to  introduce  outsi<le  air  into  these 
rooms  without  rapid  drying  from  the  lowered  relative  humidity  of 
the  atmosphere.  Both  the  temperature  and  the  relative  humidity  of 
the  air  introduced  must  be  raised  within  working  limits  before  the 
rooms  can  be  ventilated  without  injury  to  the  cheeses. 

Instead  of  free  ventilation,  as  in  Normandy,  this  air  under  the 
present  j)ractice  must  be  introduced  through  the  making  room,  when' 
it  absorbs  moisture,  or  ventilation  nnist  be  rcducetl  until  the  change 
of  air  is  nicely  balanced  by  the  amount  of  evai)oration  desired.  No 
instruments  have  been  found  which  give  a  practical  and  immediate 
check  nj)on  the  humidity  relations  in  such  rooms.  I'nless  the  chee>e- 
maker  is  extremely  careful,  unfavorable  con<litions  are  detected  only 
after  their  bad  effects  have  been  wrought  upon  the  cheeses. 

Binghamton  is  in  the  same  district  as  the  factories  which  have 
made  C'amembert  in  New  Wnk  State.  One  factory  reports  success 
during  parts  of  October  and  November  and  at  no  other  season.  The 
report  given  for  Binghamton  covers  a  single  year.  lSi»S.  A  ghince 
at  these  figures  shows  that  onlv  tliiring  October  and   Novenilwr  do 


44  CAMEMBERT   CHEESE   PROBLEMS. 

mean  temperature  and  relative  humidity  both  approach  the  average  for 
Xormandy.  At  any  other  season  the  climatic  conditions  make  success 
only  attainable  by  artificially  producing  the  proper  temperature  or 
humidit}',  or  both.  Factories  built  for  French  conditions  have  actu- 
ally produced  fine  results  a  few  weeks  of  each  year,  and  caused 
numerous  difficulties  and  losses  at  other  seasons. 

The  table  brings  out,  therefore,  the  contrast  between  the  climatic 
conditions  of  dairy  sections  of  the  United  States  and  those  of  Nor- 
mand}'.  The  question  remains,  Can  Camembert  cheese  manufacture 
be  made  successful  in  spite  of  these  conditions  ?  The  factory  manager 
already  quoted  has  said:  "  The  Camembert  season  in  America  is  just 
about  six  weeks — October  15  to  December  1."  This  assumes  a  factory 
built  and  run  as  it  would  be  in  northern  France,  but  it  also  results 
from  seven  j-ears'  experience  with  that  factory.  In  that  time  several 
hundred  thousands  of  Camembert  cheeses  were  made  and  sold.  Large 
losses  3'ear  after  year  led  finally  to  the  closing  of  this  factory,  which 
was  built  and  operated  originally  by  a  French  family,  who  continued 
to  operate  a  factory  in  France  during  the  same  time  and  who  have 
done  so  since  this  was  closed. 

Several  other  companies  have  had  more  or  less  similar  experience 
and  abandoned  the  effort  or  curtailed  the  product  on  account  of 
similar  troubles.  The  partial  successes  obtained  in  these  factories 
have  been  best  secured  in  the  two  or  three  autumn  months  which  are 
indicated  by  the  table  as  reproducing  P>ench  climate  most  closely. 
Similarly,  in  experimental  work  at  Storrs,  Conn.,  excellent  results 
have  been  obtained  in  the  same  months.  xVside  from  this  short  period, 
it  has  been  necessar^^  to  determine  the  conditions  needed  and  to  pro- 
duce them  or  fail  to  get  good  cheeses.  AVlien  the  conditions  have 
been  right,  good  cheeses  have  been  readily  obtained.  At  all  other 
times  experimental  cheeses  were  lost. 

Both  factory  operations  and  experimental  work  thus  show  that  un- 
favorable climatic  conditions  in  the  United  States  must  be  overcome 
during  a  considerable  part  of  the  year  before  continued  success  can 
be  hoped  for.  To  overcome  these  difficulties,  either  the  location  of 
the  factory  must  be  determined  by  the  presence  of  the  climatic  con- 
ditions desired  or  the  construction  of  the  factory  itself  must  make 
possible  the  production  of  those  conditions  when  necessary.  The 
former  would  permit  Camembert  cheese  making  in  very  few,  if  any, 
places  in  the  Eastern  States;  there  is,  however,  some  reason  to  hope 
that  this  would  be  successful  on  the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  already 
introduced  in  the  neighborhood  of  San  Francisco.  If  success  is  to 
be  attained  in  the  Eastern  States  the  factory  must  be  so  built  as  to 
enable  the  cheese  maker  to  furnish  the  conditions  required,  irrespec- 
tive of  outside  temperature  or  humidity. 


CONDITIONS    NECESSARY    IN    FACTORY    CONSTRUCTION.  45 

CONSTRUCTION    OF   ROOMS    FOR    CHEESE    RIPENING. 

Since  French  factory  construction  has  failed  in  America  in  the 
hands  of  experienced  Camenibert  makers  from  France,  some  changes 
are  necessary.  Such  changes  must  enable  the  cheesemaker  to  mini- 
mize the  effects  of  sudden  and  violent  changes  of  temperature  during 
the  winter  months,  and  little  or  no  Camembert  can  be  made  under 
prevailing  conditions  from  May  to  August.  To  produce  this  effect 
two  possibilities  are  open:  (1)  Buildings  upon  the  present  plans  but 
thoroughly  protected  from  cold  winds,  insulated  against  heat  and 
cold,  and  furnished  with  efficient  systems  of  controlling  ventilation; 
(2)  factories  with  their  ripening  rooms  partly  or  entirely  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground  and  furnished  with  equally  good  apparatus 
for  ventilation. 

Both  systems  offer  advantages.  The  factories  at  present  built 
are  successful  part  of  the  time.  If  better  protected  against  changes 
of  weather  and  sujjplied  with  efficient  means  of  insuring  proper 
moisture  conditions,  the  same  buildings  may  perhaps  be  used  success- 
fully. Without  such  alterations  they  appear  to  have  failed  as  in- 
vestments. If  correction  of  their  failures  is  possible  their  use  would 
involve  the  least  change  of  methods  on  the  part  of  the  woikinen.  If 
the  whole  ripening  process  be  carried  on  in  rooms  partly  or  outirely 
below  ground,  the  exposure  to  storm  would  be  reduced,  the  i)roduc- 
tion  of  uniform  temperatures  would  be  much  easier,  and  the  moisture 
of  the  soil  would  aid  in  maintaining  the  desired  humidity,  but  means 
of  producing  and  controlling  ventilation  would  be  equally  difficult 
to  manage  during  a  large  part  of  the  year.  Such  rooms,  if  planned, 
should,  if  possible,  run  into  the  hillside  and  have  opportunity  for 
ample  window  space  for  lighting  purposes. 

In  any  plan  of  construction  the  apparatus  (shelving,  frames,  units, 
etc.)  used  in  the  French  factories  has  proved  its  economy  and  effi- 
ciency. 

With  either  choice  of  general  plan,  the  space  for  ripening  ought 
to  be  divided  and  arranged  to  enable  the  production  of  a  series  of 
conditions  within  the  working  limits  of  cheese  ripening  already  dis- 
cussed. The  proposal  of  simply  a  "halloir"  and  a  "  sechoir  "  may 
be  doubled  to  advantage.  Instead  of  one  very  moist  r<H)m  and 
another  quite  dry,  the  same  space  may  very  desirably  be  divitled 
into  three  or  four  rooms  offering  a  series  of  conditions.  One  of 
these  rooms,  if  the  series  be  in  a  hillside,  ought  to  l)e  moist  enough 
almost  but  not  completely  to  stop  evaporation.  From  this  condition 
the  other  rooms  may  reduce  relative  humidity  somewhat,  and  the 
series  should  have  one  room  approximating  the  French  "  scchoir." 
The  driest  room  or  "  sechoir,"  however,  must  still  have  the  humidity 
of  French  atmosphere,  which  averages  83  to  8.')  per  cent  during  the 


46  CAMEMBERT   CHEESE   PEOBLEMS. 

working  season.  This  is  a  very  different  figure  from  our  TO  to  80 
per  cent  humidity,  which  drops  much  lower  yet  when  we  compensate 
for  the  necessary  heating  of  this  air  before  it  can  be  introduced. 
Such  a  series  should  probably  range  in  humidity  from  90  to  92  per 
cent  in  the  wettest  to  80  to  83  per  cent  in  the  driest  room. 

If  we  study  the  conditions  in  a  room  full  of  cheeses  we  should  find 
the  air  Avithin  that  room  to  have  higher  relative  humidity  than  the  air 
outside.  If  Ave  take  an  average  mean  humidity  of  83  to  85  per  cent 
as  the  condition  in  the  Camenibert  region  of  France,  the  average 
"  halloir  "  would  probably  test  betAveen  87  and  90  per  cent  Avhen  filled 
Avith  cheeses,  and  at  times  higher.  In  order  to  transplant  cheese 
ripening  to  America,  therefore,  Ave  must  get  relatiA^e  humidities 
approximating  such  figures. 

STAGES  or  RIPENING. 

First  two  weeliS. — Cheeses  enter  the  first  room  (halloir)  on  the 
third  day  after  making.  They  usually  become  sticky,  Avith  evidence 
of  O'idium  lactis  and  often  Avith  the  smell  t)f  yeast,  Avithin  three  or 
four  days.  In  five  to  six  days  the  Avhite  threads  of  Camenibert  mold 
begin  to  be  seen.  In  nine  to  tAveh'e  days  the  colonies  of  Camenibert 
mold  shoAv  traces  of  colored  spores.  The  colonies  of  Camembert 
mold  appear  as  patches  on  the  sides  and  edges  or  as  a  light  coA^ering 
AA'ell  distributed,  but  they  should  not  form  a  heaA\A"  felt  all  over. 
Areas  uncovered  or  only  partly  covered  Avith  mold  should  shoAV  a 
marked  slimy  reddish  coA'ering.  If  the  mold  forms  a  heaA'y  felt 
Avith  the  dark  color  of  abundant  spores  it  is  called  "  black  "'  and 
rejected  as  not  first  gi-ade.  If  the  room  is  too  Avet,  o'idium,  yeast, 
bacteria,  and  even  Avhite  piles  of  mucor  tend  to  displace  Camembert 
mold  entirely.  As  the  humidity  is  loAvered  the  activity  of  the 
Camembert  mold  increases  proportionately  to  that  of  the  slime  organ- 
isms until  a  condition  is  reached  in  Avhich  eA'ery  trace  of  slime  is 
coA^ered  OA'er  by  felt-like  mycelium.  BetAveen  the  A^ery  Avet  condi- 
tion and  the  optimum  for  mold  groAvth  Ave  find  the  best  condition 
for  cheese  ripening.  A  heaA'y  coA'ering  of  mold  extracts  Avater  from 
the  surface  of  the  cheese  and  makes  the  rind  too  dry  to  permit  the 
growth  of  the  slime  organisms.  At  its  optimum  Camembert  mold 
Avill  overgroAv  any  other  species  Avhich  may  happen  to  be  present  and 
at  the  same  time  dry  the  rind  so  that  the  bacteria  and  oi'dium  are 
much  restrained,  at  least.  If  the  moisture  conditions  are  reduced 
from  this  optimum,  the  groAvth  of  Camembert  mold  Avill  be  reduced 
gradually  until  a  percentage  is  reached  at  Avhich  other  molds  groAV 
equally  Avell.  The  appearance  of  colonies  of  common  green  molds 
indicates,  therefore,  that  the  air  of  the  room  or  the  cheeses,  or  both, 
are  dry  enough  for  the  shrinkage  of  the  cheese  to  become  noticeable 


STAGES   OF   EIPEXING.  47 

also.  At  the  end  of  two  weeks'  ripening  the  rind  of  the  cheese  shoukl 
be  well  established  and  the  first  traces  of  softening  usually  appear. 
If  the  rooms  are  kept  cold,  every  stage  of  ripening  may  require  double 
the  amount  of  time  needed  at  the  limits  suggested  (52  to  5G  or  oS" 
F.).  Cheeses  low  in  water  content  require  more  time  than  those 
containing  higher  percentages  of  water. 

A  series  of  rooms  rather  than  a  single  "  halloir "  otl'ers  several 
advantages.  The  cheeses  made  from  day  to  day  differ  somewhat  in 
condition  as  they  are  removed  from  the  making  room.  If  all  go  to 
one  room  kei)t  at  a  theoretical  average  humidity,  some  become  too 
wet  and  others  too  dry  even  when  the  condition  of  the  cheeses  which 
happen  to  approximate  the  average  moisture  content  is  satisfactory. 
With  a  choice  of  rooms,  cheeses  firm  and  possibly  overhard  may  be 
kept  under  more  moist  conditions.  The  wet  cheeses  may  be  in  a 
room  with  less  humidity.  Again,  different  markets  call  for  varj^ing 
ideals  of  ripening.  Mild  flavors  and  fairly  firm  textures  can  be 
obtained  by  ripening  where  a  gradual  but  continuous  evaporation  is 
maintained.  Moister  conditions,  with  the  consequent  development  of 
bacteria  and  oi'dium,  are  associated  with  stronger  cheese.  Such  cheeses 
may  be  ripened  very  soft  or,  after  ripening  is  started,  spend  a  few 
days  in  a  "  sechoir,''  or  drying  room,  and  come  out  with  firmer  tex- 
ture. The  treatment  of  the  cheese  should  depend  not  only  upon  its 
texture  and  appearance,  but  also  upon  the  ideals  sought.  "With  a 
series  of  rooms  presenting  different  but  known  and  controlled  condi- 
tions one  lot  of  cheeses  does  not  need  to  be  ruined  to  save  others. 
By  moving  cheeses  from  room  to  room  a  nnich  larger  i)ercentage  of 
good  results  is  obtainable  than  with  less  provision  for  control. 

Third  tree/,. — During  the  first  two  weeks  little  or  no  changes  in 
the  sour  curd  are  noticeable.  A  piece  of  litmus  paper  pressed  against 
a  cut  cheese  will  show  an  acid  condition,  although  at  the  end  of  this 
time  the  surface  layers  for  perhaps  one-eighth  of  an  inch  may  test 
alkaline  (blue).  During  the  third  week  the  I'ipening  changes  usually 
progress  more  rapidly,  which  will  be  indicated  I)y  a  softening  of  the 
curd  just  under  the  rind.  The  line  between  sour  curd  and  rii)ened 
cheese  is  a  fairly  sharp  one,  as  shown  by  the  softening  of  the  texture. 
The  change  fi-om  an  acid  to  an  alkaline  reaction  can  often  l)e  shown 
by  pressing  litnnis  paper  against  the  cut  edge  of  a  cheese.  The  soft. 
well-ripened  j)art  in  such  cheeses  reacts  alkaline  (blue).  Ripe  cheese 
is  occasionally  acid  in  reaction  to  litmus.  It  i<  usually,  howt'ver. 
neutral  or  alkaline. 

When  this  softening  becomes  noticeable  at  the  edges  of  the  cheeses 
they  must  be  removed  from  the  matting.  Ihe  mold  of  the  rind 
tends  to  grow  fast  to  the  wood  strips,  which  <ut  into  the  cheese  as 
softening  begins.  If  they  are  not  j)romptly  removt'd  areas  of  rind 
will  j)eel  off  and  adhei-*-  to  the  matting  when  the  cheeses  are  removed. 


48  CAMEMBERT    CHEESE    PROBLEMS. 

Ripening  on  hoards. — At  this  time,  if  further  ripening  in  the  same 
room  is  desired,  the  cheeses  are  phiced  upon  the  smooth  boards  with 
which  the  frames  and  matting  are  replaced.  "Where  a  second  room 
or  "  sechoir  "  is  used  the  cheeses  now  go  into  this  room.  They  are 
turned  on  the  boards,  usually  every  day,  to  secure  uniformity  of 
rij^ening  and  to  avoid  losses  from  adhering  to  the  wood  and  breaking. 
At  this  time  the  tendency  to  evaporation  and  shrinkage  in  size  is 
very  noticeable;  hence  the  second  room  must  be  watched  closely. 

Red  areas. — With  the  softening  period  and  the  constant  turnnig 
of  the  cheeses  on  smooth  boards  the  reddish  or  yellowish  slim}^  areas 
increase  in  size  until  they  often  more  or  less  completely  cover  up 
the  moldy  part  of  the  rind.  This  increase  calls  for  more  moist 
conditions  for  its  full  development. 

The  rate  of  ripening  is  closely  dependent  upon  temperature.  At 
the  low  temperatures — 50  to  54°  F. — mold  growth  is  still  fairly  rapid, 
but  the  rate  of  ripening  is  reduced.  It  is  possible  at  about  ()0  degrees 
to  produce  cheeses  almost  completely  softened  at  twenty-one  to 
twenty-four  days,  when  at  50  to  54  degrees  a  cheese  may  be  less  than 
one-half  ripe  in  the  same  time.  Cheeses  high  in  water  content  ripen 
most  rapidly;  when  containing  less  water  the  cheeses  can  be  held  at 
higher  temperatures  with  less  rapid  softening. 

Three  to  four  iceel's. — Cheeses  ripened  rapidly  decay  also  more 
rapidly.  It  is  difficult  to  hold  a  cheese  ripened  in  twenty-one  to 
twenty-five  daj's  for  any  length  of  time.  In  our  experiments  rapid 
ripening  has  been  associated  with  such  rapid  decay  that  a  ripening 
under  four  weeks  has  seemed  to  render  cheeses  too  perishable  for 
successful  market  handling.  Many  of  our  cheeses  which  became 
entirely  soft  in  twentj^-three  to  twenty-five  days  developed  within 
two  or  three  days  after  becoming  fully  soft  ammoniacal  odors 
and  the  peculiar  flavor  which  one  quickly  learns  to  associate  with 
overripeness.  On  the  other  hand,  where  the  process  has  been  pro- 
longed to  thirty  daj's  or  more  before  complete  ripeness  the  cheese 
retained  acceptable  flavor  and  texture  for  several  days  longer. 

It  is  thus  possible  to  reach  much  the  same  results  in  several  ways. 
By  making  the  drier  cheeses  and  ripening  at  slightly  higher  tempera- 
tures we  are  able  to  reach  good  flavors  and  textures  in  the  proper  time 
without  quick  decay.  Making  a  slightly  wetter  cheese  and  ripening 
at  the  lower  temperature  accomplishes  the  same  result  in  the  season 
of  year  when  such  cheeses  can  be  handled.  If  the  fully  ripe  cheese 
contains  more  than  51  or  52  per  cent  of  water  decay  is  quick  and 
complete  as  a  rule.  "\^lien  the  water  content  is  between  47  and  51 
per  cent,  the  fully  ripe  cheese  is  firmer  and  resists  decay  much  longer. 

Ripening  in  boxes. — In  factory  practice  the  ripening  is  rarely  car- 
ried be^'ond  the  third  week  upon  boards.  Verj'^  often  the  boards  are 
not  used  at  all.    In  such  cases  the  cheeses  from  the  boards,  or  after 


WRAPPING  AND   PACKING.  49 

they  are  removed  from  the  matting,  are  wrapped  in  parchment  paper 
(sometimes  also  in  tin  foil)  and  put  in  boxes  and  the  boxes  crated. 
Very  few  cheeses  are  as  much  as  half  ripened  throughout  when  they 
are  wrapped  and  boxed. 

The  stage  of  ripening  at  which  this  is  done  influences  the  final 
product  considerably,  as  a  rule.  In  experimental  work  it  has  been 
found  that  cheeses  wrapped  and  boxed  when  two-thirds  covered  with 
mold  (with  the  mold  still  white  or  faintly  tinged  with  green)  usually 
develop  the  stronger  flavors.  If  the  mold  is  allowed  to  go  further 
and  to  cover  the  cheese  completely  and  become  colored  before  wrap- 
ping, the  milder  flavors  are  more  common.  Sometimes  tin  foil  is  used 
in  wrapping  cheese.  This  minimizes  evaporation,  making  practically 
a  sealed  package,  in  which  little  or  no  mold  growth  occurs  and  even 
inhibits  some  forms  of  bacteria.  Hard  cheeses  low  in  water  content 
may  in  this  way  be  made  to  soften  completely.  In  general,  tin  foil 
wrapping  prevents  evaporation,  hastens  ripening,  produces  a  more 
nearly  liquid  cheese,  and  leads  to  strong,  almost  biting,  flavors.  Some 
consumers  prefer  such  cheeses,  hence  there  are  brands  which  regularly 
supply  this  demand,  but  the  larger  part  of  the  trade  does  not  use 
cheeses  wrapped  in  tin  foil. 

Cheeses  can  be  ripened  fully,  with  excellent  texture  and  flavor, 
upon  smooth  boards  without  wrapping  at  all.  But  as  they  soften 
they  tend  to  break  open  and  lose  shape,  which  makes  such  ripening 
impracticable  for  the  factory. 

After  boxing,  the  further  ripening  may  be  completed  at  the  factory 
in  a  special  room,  as  described  above,  or  the  cheeses  are  sent  at  once 
to  market.  In  France,  where  the  latter  practice  was  observed,  the 
I)urchasei*s  who  wished  to  supply  fully  ripe  cheese  in  exactly  the 
right  condition  unwrapped  them  and  finished  the  ripening  upon 
smooth  boards  in  a  cellar  with  air  nearly  saturated  and  temperature, 
as  already  descril^ed,  jierhaps  ofi  to  58°  F." 

Fully  ripe  rhfCKc. — The  proper  texture  of  a  fully  ripe  cheese  is  a 
matter  of  preference.  Good  flavored  cheeses,  cheeses  even  of  the 
same  flavor,  can  be  obtained  soft  enough  to  "  run  '^  when  cut,  or  they 
may  be  of  the  consistency  of  moderately  soft  butter. 

WHEN   TO  MARKET   THE   CHEESE. 

The  time  of  packing  and  shipping  cheeses  should  depend  upon  the 
closeness  of  connection  betwi»en  factory  and  consumer.  In  sending 
cheeses  to  the  general  market  in  France  and  also  in  this  country, 
the  practice  has  been  to  keep  the  cheese  in  the  factory  until  the  mold 
has  developed  and  the  cheese  has  begmi  to  show  slime,  that  is,  until 


"  Soft  Cheese  StU(ll«'S  In  Kiirope.     Twenty-second  Annnnl  Report.  Bureau  of 
Anluiul  Industry,  l'nite<l  States  Department  of  .\};rienltuit'.  |>.  ItO. 


50  CAMEMBERT    CHEESE    PROBLEMS. 

the  softeniiiof  has  begun  slightly — })erhaps  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
under  the  rind.  Tiie  cheeses  are  tlien  packed  and  sent  to  market. 
In  ])articular  cases  (for  special  i)atrons  or  special  markets)  they 
have  been  allowed  to  rijien  further.  But  in  general  the  maker  has 
endeavored  to  get  the  preliminary  stages  of  ripening  jjroperly  started, 
and  then  the  cheeses  are  sent  to  the  distributing  center.  Once  on  the 
market  such  cheeses  either  go  to  special  cellars  for  hnishing,  which 
may  be  in  the  hands  of  the  commission  man  or  the  actual  user,  as  in 
cases  of  hotels,  cafes,  etc..  or  they  may  go  direct  to  the  retailer  and 
be  sold  for  consumption. 

Much  observation  of  the  cheeses  offered  for  sale  at  retail  shows 
that  in  France  very  many  such  cheeses  reach  the  private  consumer 
less  than  one-third  ripe. 

TIIK    A^IERICAX     ISIARKET. 

In  America  most  users  of  Camembert  demand  fully  ripe  cheese. 
Some  prefer  it  just  before  complete  ripeness,  when  there  is  a  slight 
layer  of  sour  curd  in  the  center,  while  a  very  few  ask  for  cheese  with 
little  or  no  softening.  This  complicates  the  problem  of  handling 
Camembert.  The  average  consumer  or  even  the  dealer  has  not  under- 
stood how  to  handle  it  at  the  various  stages  of  ripeness. 

The  necessity  remains,  therefore,  for  the  maker  who  sends  cheese 
to  the  general  market  to  send  it  so  long  before  complete  ripeness  as 
to  minimize  losses  from  overripeness.  At  the  same  time,  to  sell 
fully  ripe  cheese  to  the  consumer,  the  maker  must  ripen  as  far  as 
he  dares  before  selling.  Careful  study  of  the  condition  of  the  market 
emphasizes  the  desirability  of  the  closest  possible  connection  between 
factory  and  consumer. 

SHALL   THE   FACTORY   MAKE   CAMEMBERT   ONLY? 

In  establishing  cheese  factories  it  is  generally  good  policy  to 
combine  the  manufacture  of  several  kinds  of  dairy  products.  The 
standard  of  milk  for  Camembert  needs  to  be  somewhat  higher  than 
is  absolutely  necessary  for  some  other  work.  The  ability  to  utilize 
all  milk  in  reasonably  good  condition  would  save  loss  caused  by 
refusing  a  patron's  milk  which  might  occasionally  be  unsuitable  for 
Camembert.  but  could  be  used  for  butter  or  for  other  cheeses.  Fur- 
ther, the  factory  should  be  able  to  take  the  milk  throughout  the 
year,  while  Camembert  has  not  been  handled  to  advantage  in  the 
United  States  during  our  hot  months  of  summer.  Some  combination 
with  other  uses  of  milk  should  make  work  practicable  throughout 
the  vear. 


CAMEMBERT   CHEESEMAKING  ON    THE   FAEM.  51 

THE   COOKING   OF   CAMEMBERT   CHEESE. 

That  Camembert  is  a  very  perishable  product  has  been  repeatedly 
emphasized  in  these  discussions.  When  fully  ripe  the  marketable 
period  is  very  short — a  few  days  or  a  week  at  best — and  even  that 
time  requires  low  temperature  and  care.  It  thus  happens  that  losses 
in  the  American  market  have  been  large.  Many  of  these  losses  have 
fallen  directly  upon  the  consumer  who  has  bought  the  cheese  at  his 
own  risk  in  the  market  and  found  it  too  ripe  for  his  taste  or  having 
some  of  the  flavors  of  overripeness  or  too  rapid  ripening,  which  are 
objected  to  by  many  persons.  Experiments  show  that  an}"  cheese 
which  is  in  condition  to  be  selected  by  one  even  casualh'  acquainted 
with  Camembert  can  be  used  acceptably  in  cooking.  The  cheese 
need  not,  therefore,  be  entirely  lost,  even  though  higher  in  price  than 
the  kinds  of  cheese  usually  used  in  cooking. 

Several  brands  of  canned  or  tinned  Camembert  are  obtainable.  All 
are  cooke<l  forms  of  this  cheese  and  suggest  the  possibilities  of  pre- 
venting loss  of  stock  in  this  way.  In  America  all  soft-cheese  trade 
has  hitherto  been  irregular  and  uncertain.  Dealers  and  makers  have 
suffered  from  irregularity,  especially  in  the  demand  for  CameinlHMt. 
Cheeses  not  sold  are  lost,  as  a  rule.  Cooking  or  canning  under  proper 
conditions  offers  a  method  of  minimizing  such  losses. 

MAKING   CAMEMBERT   CHEESE   ON   THE   FARM. 

As  a  general  market  proposition  it  is  not  advisable  to  undertake 
the  making  of  Camembert  cheese  on  the  farm.  In  special  cases,  such 
cheesemaking  may  undoubtedly  be  developed  to  considerable  advan- 
tage, but  as  yet  these  possibilities  have  not  been  really  touched  in  this 
country.  The  making  and  ripening  of  the  cheese  in  a  certain  house- 
hold known  to  the  writer  has,  however,  been  successfully  carried  on 
during  the  j)ast  year,  although  the  ciieeses  produced  have  varieil  con- 
siderably in  texture  and  flavor,  and  all  have  differed  from  the  im- 
ported cheese  in  apj)earance.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  the  uni- 
formity demanded  by  the  trade  at  ])resent  could  be  readily  obtained 
when  work  is  done  with  such  small  numbers  of  cheeses.  The  eipiip- 
ment  used  costs  but  a  few  cents  in  addition  to  the  utensils  already  in 
the  home.  For  riix'uing.  a  small  zinc-lined  refrigerator  has  jirovcd 
capable  of  adaptation  to  jjroduce  approximately  the  conditions  of 
ripening.  With  this  or  similar  e(|uipnient  it  has  been  denu)n>ti-at(Ml 
that  a  busy  housekeeper  in  the  intervals  of  her  work  can  make  and 
ripen  Camembert  cheese  enough  to  supply  jjer  own  family  and  some 
of  her  friends. 

In  this  instance  the  complex  problems  of  jjiodncing  Camembert 
cheese  were  fairly  well  mastered  in  a  single  season.  \{  the  sani*' 
time  no  losses  were  necessary  in  the  process,  because  every  cheese  was 


52  CAMEMBERT   CHEESE   PROBLEMS, 

eatcMi  in  some  stage  or  condition  of  ripeness,  while  repeated  trials 
showed  that  Caniembert  cheeses,  either  lacking  in  flavor  or  too  strong, 
could  still  be  utilized  in  cooking.  Thus  the  value  of  the  materials 
used  Avas  recovered  as  acceptable  food  in  the  family  in  every  case, 
since  deficiencies  in  flavor  did  not  prevent  the  use  of  the  cheese  as 
food.  Although  this  work  in  its  beginnings  has  cost  a  dispropor- 
tionate amount  of  time  for  the  food  actually  produced,  the  house- 
keeper who  has  already  done  this  expects  to  continue  to  develop  this 
work  and  to  sell  the  product  to  advantage  in  a  special  market. 

Caniembert  cheesemaking  has  been  discussed  in  this  paper  mainly 
as  a  factory  proi)Osition.  The  production  of  this  cheese  for  the 
general  market  will  j)robably  remain  so  in  this  country,  just  as  it 
has  become  so  in  France.  It  is  entirely  possible,  however,  to  produce 
cheeses  of  this  type  for  home  use  wherever  some  member  of  the  family 
will  take  the  trouble  to  learn  the  work  properly.  The  skill  and 
expense  entailed  are  no  greater  than  the  demands  of  many  other  lines 
of  work  already  regularly  carried  on  in  the  household  for  no  larger 
return.  In  many  special  cases  production  can  go  further  and  very 
profltably  supi:)ly  the  special  j^ersonal  market  in  the  same  way  as 
many  families  now  regularly  supply  butter  or  other  jiroducts  dii-ectly 
to  customers. 

The  cheese  made  under  these  conditions  would  probably  be  refused 
if  offered  in  the  general  market.  The  general  market  requires  uni- 
formity among  large  numbers  of  cheeses.  This  would  not  be  reached 
by  putting  together  the  cheeses  from  a  large  number  of  farms  so 
well  as  if  all  came  from  one  factory.  Where  a  small  number  of 
cheeses  is  made,  control  of  conditions  is  more  difficult.  Cheeses  will 
vary  more  from  day  to  day,  and  they  would  require  more  care  in 
selling  than  the  dealer  can  afford  to  give.  Products  of  this  kind  must 
be  made  for  and  delivered  directly  to  a  special  market  to  obtain  satis- 
faction for  either  party. 

In  the  making  of  Camembert  cheese  on  a  small  scale  the  problems 
to  be  met  will  seem  new  and  strange  at  first.  It  will  take  some  time 
to  acquire  the  skill  and  judgment  to  work  successfully,  and  especially 
to  develop  a  considerable  number  of  workers  with  such  skill.  But 
this  is  in  no  way  impossible,  and  there  are  many  situations  in  which 
those  engaged  in  dairy  work  might  regularly  produce  this  kind  of 
cheese  from  surplus  milk  and  add  materially  to  their  profits  without 
appreciably  increasing  their  expenses.  Like  any  other  line  o:^  work 
worth  doing,  it  must  be  learned  well  or  it  will  lose  for  the  investor 
both  the  time  and  money  put  in.  Some  markets  will  take  hard  cheese 
either  good  or  bad  and  pay  something  for  it,  but  soft  cheesesj  espe- 
cially Camembert.  are  either  good  or  good  for  nothing  in  the  ordi- 
nary market.  A  family  w'ould  be  able  to  consume  its  experimentally 
made  cheese,  but  not  the  output  uiDon  a  larger  scale.    The  conditions 


PUBLICATIONS    RELATING    TO    CAMEMBERT    CHEESE.  53 

of  each  case  should  be  well  considered  before  Cainembert  cheeseinak- 
ing  is  undertaken  upon  the  farm.  Under  proper  conditions  it  may 
be  a  source  of  both  pleasure  and  jDrofit. 

In  the  vast  majority  of  cases  better  results  will  he  reached  for  the 
farm  by  perfecting  the  control  of  the  production  of  milk  than  by 
attempting  to  market  the  milk  produced  as  Camembert  cheese.  Com- 
paratively few  farms  can  combine  these  lines  of  work  to  advantage. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

The  author  desires  to  acknowledge  the  assistance  of  Messrs.  A.  W. 
Dox,  F.  R.  Thomson,  and  C.  J.  Grant,  members  of  the  staff  at  the 
Storrs  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  with  whom  the  work  de- 
scribed in  this  bulletin  has  been  discussed  in  detail.  Acknowledg- 
ment is  also  made  of  conferences  with  and  suggestions  from  Messrs. 
A.  W.  Ferguson  and  G.  H.  Garstin  and  of  analyses  by  ^Ir.  II.  D. 
Edmond.  Numerous  courtesies  have  been  freely  extended  by  manu- 
facturers of  the  Camembert  and  related  kinds  of  cheese  in  ^Vmerica 
and  by  dealers  in  and  importers  of  French  cheese. 

PUBLICATIONS   RELATING  TO   CAMEMBERT   CHEESE. 

The  following  publications  have  been  issued  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  or  by  Storrs  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  Storrs,  Conn.  Those  for  which  a  price  is  shown  may  be 
secured  only  on  application  and  remittance  to  the  Superintentlent 
of  Documents,  (jovernment  Printing  Office,  Washington.  1).  C. 
Others  may  be  had  by  application  to  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agricidture.  Washington.  I).  C,  or  to  the  Storrs  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  Storrs.  Conn.,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Conn,  IIkkijkrt  W.  ;  Tiiom,  Ciiabi.ks;  P.oswoktii,  A.  W. ;  Skkkinc,  \V.  A..  .Fr. ; 
ami  LssA.JKKK,  T.  W. 
The  Caiiienibert  type  <»f  soft  clieese  in  tlie  Initod  Slates,  l'.  S.  lH']iatt- 
iiieiit  of  .\Ki*ic'ulture,  Hiireau  of  .\ninial  liidusti-.v.  P.iilh'lin  71.  W.isli- 
lnf?t()n,  V.H)~t.  Priee.  H  cents.  Also  piildisluHl  as  P.ulU'lin  ."..">  nf  .Storrs 
Agricultural  E.xperinieiit  Station.     Storrs.  1".H(.">. 

DoANK,  C.  F.,  and  Lawson.  II.  W. 

Varieties  of  clie<'se :  Descriptions  and  anjiiyses.  I'.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture.  Hureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Itulletin  PC).  Wasliington. 
P.HIS.     Price,  10  cents. 

Dox,  Aktiii'b  W. 

Proteolytic  changes  in  the  rii>ening  •>f  ("amcmlteri  ciieesc.  r.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Hiu-eau  of  .\nimai  Industry.  P.nlletin  1<»'.>.  W.ish- 
ington,  IIKJS.     Price.  .'»  cents. 

I8.SA.IKFK,  Thkodori:  W. 

Investigations  in    the   manufacture  .-nul   curing   of   cheese     Dirn-tions   for 
making   the  Camemiiert    type  of  cIum-s*'.      1'.   S.    Department    of   .\gricul 
tm-e.  P.ureau  of  Animal  Industry.  Ilulletin  its.     Washington.  11M»7.     Pri<-e. 
r>  cents.     Also   puhlisheil   as   Hidletin   •!<>  of   Storrs  .^griculttir.il    Kxperi- 
nient  Station.     .Storrs,  P.KJ7. 


54  CAMEMBERT    CHEESE    PROBLEMS. 

TiioM,  Charles. 

Funj^i  in  cheese  ripening:  Camembert  and  Roquefort.  I^.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  82.  Washington, 
lyoO.  Price,  5  cents.  Also  published  in  Seventeenth  xVnnual  Report  of 
Storrs  Agricultural  Exi)eriment  Station  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1905,  pp.  73-115.     Middletown,  190G. 

Soft-cheese  studies  in  Europe.  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry,  Twenty-second  Annual  Report,  1905,  pp.  79-109.  Wash- 
ington, 1907. 

The  care  and  testing  of  Camembert  cheese.  U.  S.  Department  of  xigri- 
culture.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Twenty-fourth  Annual  Report,  1907, 
pp.  339-343.  Washington,  1909.  I'rice,  85  cents.  Issued  separately 
as  Circular  145  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  Also  published  in 
Xew  York  Produce  Review  and  American  Creamery,  vol.  25,  No.  24,  pp. 
970-971.     New  York,  April  8,  1908. 

Popular  descriptions  and  brief  discussions  of  Camembert  cheese 
are  numerous  in  dairy  text-books  and  journals.  Only  a  few  of  the 
more  important  or  more  recent  references  consulted  in  preparing  this 
paper  are  listed  here.  The  chemical  literature  is  reviewed  and  listed 
by  Arthur  W.  Dox  in  Bulletin  109,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  cited 
above. 

BoswoKTH,  Alfred  W. 

Chemical  studies  of  Camembert  cheese.  New  York  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  Technical  Bulletin  5.     Geneva,  1907. 

BuTTENBERG,   P.,  and  GUTH,  W. 

i'ber  Camembert-kiise.  Zeitschrift  fiir  untersuchung  der  nahrungs-und 
genussmittel,  band  14,  heft  11,  pp.  677-682.     Berlin,  Dec.  I.  1907. 

This  article  gives  comparative  analyses  of  Camembert  of  many  brands  as  found 
in  the  German  market. 

Leze,   R. 

Preparation  et  maturation  des  cailles  de  fromagerie.     Paris,  1905. 

Maze,  P. 

Les  microbes  dans  I'industrie  fromagere.     Annales  de  I'lnstitut   Pasteur, 
tome  19,  No.  6,  pp.  378-403,  June  25;  No.  8,  pp.  481^93,  Aug.  25;  Paris, 
1905. 
,  Margaret    ( pseudonym ) . 

The  practice  of  cheese  making  at  home  and  abroad.  The  Creamery  Journal, 
vol.  1,  No.  11,  pp.  313-315.     London,  July  20,  1905. 

POURIAU,    A.    F. 

La  laiterie.  Fromage  de  Camembert.  Pp.  350-434.  Sixieme  edition  par 
Marcel  Monteran.     Paris,  1908. 

Roger,  Georges. 

La  matiere  grasse  dans  les  fromages  a  pate  molle.     Communication  faite 

au  11"  Congres  National  de  Laiterie.     Bruxelles.  1902. 
La  matiere  grasse  dans  les  fromages  k  pate  molle.     Communication  faite 
au  11"  Congres  International  de  Laiterie.     Paris.  1905. 
Van  Slyke,  Lucius  L.,  and  Publow,  Charles  A. 

The  science  and  practice  of  cheese  making.     New  York,  1909. 

o 


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